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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf-i(A.66 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Excelsior Series of Catholic School books. 



ANCIENT AND MODERN 



HISTORY. 



" In History, as in every branch of mental culture, the first elementary school-instruction 
is not merely an important, but an essential, condition, to a higher and more scientific knowl- 
edge. At first, indeed, it is merely a nomenclature of celebrated personages and events — a 
sketch of the great historical eras, divided according to chronological dates, or a geographical 
plan — which must be impressed on the memory, and which serves as a basis preparatory to 
that more vivid and comprehensive knowledge to be obtained in riper 5^ears.'' 

Frederick von Schlegel. 







NEW YORK: ^'^^"M*^^ 
WILLIAM H. SADLIER, 



11 BARCLAY STREET. 



THE LIBRARY (I 

OF CONGRESS!* 

— — 

WASHINGTON i 



Copyright, 



by William H. Sad Her. 



h{M 



SMITH & MCDOUGAL, 
ELECTROTVPERS, 



^\ 






PREFACE 



For Americans, and for Catholic Americans especially, an interest in gen- 
eral European history is both natural and essential. As Americans, we belong 
to a country which is peopled by contingents from every European nation ; by 
ancestry we are all foreigners here ; and our interests in history are as general 
as the mixture of blood in oar people is varied and diverse. As Catholics, our 
conception of history cannot centre in the assumed superior importance of any 
one nation to all others, such as a narrow patriotism sometimes imagines for 
its own kindred and race ; nor can our conception be satisfied with a knowl- 
edge of the one or two national histories to which a blood relationship alone 
might confine it. 

History, for Catholic conception, is a history of Christian civilization, or 
of the ancient civilizations which preceded, as transformed and resurrected by 
it. This history converges in ancient times to tbat centre of ancient civiliza- 
tion which became, and has ever since remained, the focus of the Christian 
faith. It diverges from that centre to the nations of later time as they became 
subject to its influence, and have remained to the present day, unconsciously, 
it may be in some cases, controlled by it. 

In offering this book for uses of instruction, the author is supported, then, 
by the sense that its topic is one of vital importance ; but as for the methods in 
which this topic shall be presented in one short book, under the limitations of 
size which practical usefuhiess demands, there, indeed, is a broad field for 
variance of opinion. For the art of teaching has little to do with the knowl- 
edge it conveys. The art of teaching is also a science to whose acquisition a 
lifetime of experience, or the bent of natural genius, must be assistant. A 
good historian may be a poor instructor — may fail, and sometimes does fail, in 
the preparation of a text-book on the subject. Practical usefulness being, then, 
the condition of success and the standard of judgment, the author takes the 
liberty of noting the practical features of this work. 



iv PREFACE. 

The typography makes use of three sizes of print. To the large print is 
assigned the direct matter of fact considered necessary for a general History 
Primer, and recitations confined to this print will still furnish an exact survey 
of the subject. The medium print is generally employed for explanatory 
matter, summaries, descriptions of civilizations, etc. The small print, not 
intended for recitation, is devoted to details which will give the work addi- 
tional value for colleges and advanced classes, or to matter which will make 
the book more interesting to the younger learner, and which could not be 
otherwise supplied without undue increase of size. 

The Chronologies, Synchronistic Tables, Genealogies, and Questions for 
Review have been given all the space and typographical clearness which their 
great importance demands. 

A most important feature is the space devoted to Historical Geography, in 
connection with a series of twenty-three double-page, progressive, historical 
maps. This subject, at once the most neglected in historical instruction and 
the most fundamentally essential to any exact conceptions of the Past, has 
never hitherto been adequately illustrated in text-books on general history, 
and matter relating to it has been necessarily excluded by absence of illustra- 
tion. The maps here in question have been supplied, with kind approbation 
of the Author, by the Publisher of Dr. Robert H. Labberton's Historical 
Atlas. 

This Atlas is undoubtedly at once the most useful and the most comprehen- 
sive of all Historical Atlases published for student use, not excepting the valu- 
able works of German origin. Its use of colors is more forcible and decided, 
and therefore clearer in its eflfects and contrasts, than that usually employed. 
Such colors, which would be inadvisable in geographical maps, are absolutely 
essential where the varying boundaries of successive political changes have to 
be clearly represented. 

In illustrations, as in maps, the author has to acknowledge an unprece- 
dented liberality on the part of the Publishers. An examination of the subjects 
chosen will show them to be of serious historical value — engraved photographs 
of the monuments of the Past in their present condition, or direct reproduc- 
tions of the pictures, medals, and engravings of older periods. The portraits 
reproduce authenticated works made in the time of the individual portrayed. 

As regards the treatment of the subject-matter, the topic of American his- 
tory is excluded from the plan of the work, as the Series to which it belongs 
has already covered this ground. The Table of Contents presents a summary 
view of the nations and periods treated, and of the arrangement adopted. This 
arrangement must be tested by its results in use; but it is the first in which a 



PREFACE 

T 

sequent view of the epochs of history has been presented without abandoning a 
treatment by nations. ^ 

It is the common opinion of teachers that history should be taught by 
nations rather than by epochs or philosophical divisions, in view of the diffl 
culties which the latter method causes in the mind of the pupil In defer 
ence to this opinion the author has planned the book, but has preserved the 
sequence of epochs in Book II. by breaking the histories of the states of West- 
ern and Central Continental Europe at 1500. Following the history of the 
Roman Empire. Germany comes first, and the Germanic epoch of the whole 
of Europe, which succeeded that of the West-Roman Empire, is thus pre- 
sented m proper sequence. Leaving the history of Germany at 1500 for that 
of France down to the same time, the French ascendency over Europe in the 
tone the Crusades thus receives its proper place. Once more leaving 
the hrstory of France at 1500 for the Renaissance civilization of Italy, which 
culmmated at that time, the sequence is still preserved. The history of Spain 
nex taken „p, is carried through the epoch of Charles V.. for which the matte; 
mltrl f^""7^\ f'«™«- ^-^d My affords a solid basis. The Hapsburg 
monarchy o Charles V. once more gives a footing for the later history of Ger! 
many, and that of France is then connected with a brief summarv for Europe 
m general after the French Revolution. " 

The nations of Northern and Eastern Europe lie in an arch around those of 
the West and Centre, and are most logically treated after those from which 
therr culture is derived. Here the order of development in civilization has 
been from west to east. Thus is dictated the arrangement of Book III. which 
places Ireland first, England second. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden third 
Russra fourth, and Turkey last, as only in the 19th century becoming subject' 
to Europeanizmg influence. The arrangement of the Ancient Nations in Book I 
also observes the sequence of historical development 

Thus much to an indulgent public, as far as preface is concerned. To the 
kmd friends whose confidence inspired and made possible his task-the tribute 
of the final sentence of his work and the warm well wishes of 

N,„v ■ THE AUTHOR. 

New York. Aug. 25, 1884. 



PROGRESSIVE HISTORICAL MAPS 



PAGE 

ANCIENT EASTERN NATIONS 18 

GREECE 28 

GREECE AND HER COLONIES 28 ^^ 

EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 58 

ITALY— REGAL PERIOD 73 

ITALY-SAMNITE WARS 86 

WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN DURING ROMAN CONQUEST 92 

EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN DURING ROMAN CONQUEST 94 

ROMAN EMPIRE 116 

EUROPE IN THE 5th CENTURY A. D 140 ^ 

EUROPE IN THE 9th CENTURY 154 

EUROPE IN THE 10th CENTURY 156 ^ 

EUROPE IN THE 12th CENTURY 182 

EUROPE IN THE 14th CENTURY 200 

MARITIME DISCOVERIES OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 226 

EUROPE IN THE 16th CENTURY 328 '^ 

EUROPE IN THE 17th CENTURY 250 / 

EUROPE IN THE 18th CENTURY (1713) 254 ' 

EUROPE IN THE 18th CENTURY (1748) ■ 256, 

EUROPE IN THE 19th CENTURY (1810) 292 

EUROPE IN THE 19th CENTURY (1816) 296 

EUROPE IN THE 19th CENTURY (1866) 298 

EUROPE IN THE 19th CENTURY (1871) 300 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



BOOK I.— ANTIQUITY— EASTERN NATIONS, GREECE AND ROME. 

PAGES 

EGYPT 3-18 

CHALD.^A AND ASSYRIA— MEDIA, BABYLONIA, AND PERSIA 19-24 

THE PHOENICIANS 25-28 

GREECE 29-72 

ROME 73-116 



BOOK II.— MODERN HISTORY— WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. 

ROMAN EMPIRE AFTER THE CHRISTIAN ERA 119-139 

GERMANY ...TO A. D. 1500 140-173 

FRANCE TO A. D. 1500 174-212 

ITALY BEFORE AND ABOUT A. D. 1500 218-223 

SPAIN BEFORE AND AFTER A. D. 1500 224-S42 

GERMANY AFTER A. D. 1500 243-263 

FRANCE AFTER A. D. 1500 264-289 

FRENCH REVOLUTION LATER CONTINENTAL EUROPE 290-304 

BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY— NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE. 

IRELAND 307-350 

ENGLAND (SCOTLAND INCLUDED) 351-400 

DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN 401-410 

RUSSIA AND POLAND 411-421 

ARABS AND TURKS 499-481 



BOOK I. 

ANTIQUITY 



THE EASTERN NATIONS OF ANCIENT HISTORY- 
G-REECE AND ROME. 



" The virtues of the Pagans were not sins, as Luther pretended. They 
were real natural virtues, which St. Augustine believed God had often re- 
warded by great temporal blessings. "— Thebaud, The Church and the Moral 
World, 



EGYPT 



MODERN STUDIES OF THE ANCIENT HIEROGLYPHICS. 



The earliest authentic records 
of History, aside from those of Holy 
Scripture, relate to Egypt. In the times 
of the Greeks and Eomans, by whom 
the Nile valley was successively subject- 
ed, authors of these nations described 
the country and related its history. But 
their accounts have been mainly sup- 
planted by studies, made in our own 
19th century, from the still earlier rec- 
ords of the Egyptians themselves — 
partly from their ruins, paintings, and 
sculptures, partly from the Meroglypliics 
(" sacred carvings ") carved on the tem- 
ples or written on rolls of papyrus. 

These modern studies in Egyp- 
tian history have been promoted by 
the interest attaching to this country, 
since the opening of the Suez Canal in 
1869, as the highway for European com- 
merce with India. They were first ex- 
cited by the Egyptian expedition of 
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. Obelisk at On* 

* Showing a tiieroglyphic Inscription. On, or Heliopolis, is in the Nile Delta. Its obelisk, 
erected by Sesortasen I., is the oldest now standing in Egypt and earlier than b. c. 2000. It 
is of granite, and 68 feet high in the solid block. 




4 EGYPT. 

Modern Egypt is a province of the Turkish Empire, but only 
loosely connected with it. The Khedive is a semi-independent 
prince, rather controlled by European holders of Egyptian bonds 
and of the shares in the Suez Canal than by the Sultan. The 
native population consists of Arabs and Kopts. The Arabs are 
descendants of the Mohammedan conquerors of the 7th century 
A. D. The Kopts are the descendants of the ancient Egyptians, as 
their name implies, which is a modified form of the word Egypt— (the 
Greek Aiguptos=Koptos). They have been long oppressed by the 
Turks and Arabs, who profess Mohammedanism, while the Kopts 
are Christians. The Koptic Church resembles the Greek Church, 
though not governed by it. 

The Koptic language has been supplanted by the Arabic, 
and is no longer spoken ; but as found in the Missals and Bibles 
still used by the priests, it is the key to the study of the old Egyp- 
tian language, of which it is the direct descendant. Such diffi- 
culties as still exist in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics are not 
so much owing to difficulty in spelling them out, as to the fact 
that the modern Koptic has lost many old Egyptian words, and 
has much modified others. 

The study of Koptic was not, however, taken up by Euro- 
pean men of science until they could spell out the hieroglyphics, 
and the first steps in this direction date from Bonaparte's campaign 
in Egypt. 

The Rosetta Stone. — There was then found in the Delta 
of the Nile a slab of basalt — now in the British Museum in 
London — known from the place of discovery as the Eosetta Stone. 
This slab was covered with three inscriptions — one in Greek, and 
two in different hieroglyphic styles. The Greek inscription showed 
that the stone dated from the time of the Ptolemies, the Greek 
kings of Egypt. Corresponding to the letters in the Greek inscrip- 
tion spelling the word Ptolemy and other proper names, were hiero- 
glyphics spelling the same words. Thus was found the clue to the 
letters of the old Egyptian alphabet. 



ANCIENT HIEROGLYPHICS. 5 

Later study of this writing has shown that it had three stages : first, that 
of picture writing of the simplest kind (like that still used by American Indians), 
where the picture represents the actual object — for instance a picture of a lion 
to represent tliis animal. The second stage used the picture to signify a related 
idea — the picture of a lion would then, for instance, represent the idea of power. 
The third stage was the alphabetic, in which the picture signified the first 
sound used in naming it ; the picture of a lion would then represent the letter 
L, the Egyptian word for lion being "labo." 

In process of time the pictures of the alphabetic stage were more and more 
simplified into symbolical and abbreviated forms, on account of the toil of 
carving them, or just as in writing we may grow to shorten and abbreviate the 
forms of our own letters. For example, the picture of a sieve had been used 
to denote the sound H. The sieve was finally denoted by a circle with a single 
line across it, instead of many Q). The Phoenician merchants of the coast of 
Syria, who borrowed this alphabet, found it simpler to make the form b . 
This, as adopted by the Greeks, was written □, the form from which the 

letter H is taken. (The letter H, in Greek use, was subsequently replaced by 
a "breathing" mark, or aspirate sign.) 

Through similar transformation, all other letters of the Phoenician alphabet 
were modified from Egyptian hieroglyphics and transmitted through the Greeks 
to later times; all known alphabets of Europe being modified Phoenician. 
The Phoenician derivation of our alphabet has been always admitted, but 
its Egyptian origin is one of the latest results of historic study. The most im- 
portant fact of Egyptian history is that we owe to it the alphabet in which 
our books are written. 

TEMPLE RUINS OF EGYPT. 

"When modern travelers saw the wonderful temple rnins 
of Egypt entirely coyered with hieroglyphic carvings ; when they 
saw the mummy cases (coffins) and papyrus rolls found in them, 
covered with hieroglyphic writing; it was natural for them to sup- 
pose that mysterious secrets would be discovered, and untold knowl- 
edge unfolded, after this writing sliould be deciphered. But the 
result of deciphering the hieroglyphics was on the whole disap- 
pointing. Much was made known of deep interest, but the results 
did not meet the expectation. The temple inscriptions were found to 



6 



EGYPT 




Tlie Great Hall of Karuak, Thebes. 



concern themselves largely with chronicles of the royal campaigns and 
victories, and with detailed catalogues of the booty. The style of 

the inscriptions is prolix, and 
much space is taken up in the 
repetition of titles. The study 
and collation of inscriptions 
has enabled scholars to extend 
their knowledge of Egyptian 
history and character in a mul- 
titude of interesting ways, but 
perhaps the most interesting 
result of hieroglyphic study 
is negative. From what has 
been left us of Egyptian liter- 
ature we find it differing from 
later literature by the absence 
of individuality or personality of style. 

This uniformity and monotony of character in the Egy})- 
tian writings remind us that the greatness of this nation w^as col- 
lective ; it did not lie in the individuals, but in the mass. The 
typical expression of Egyptian life and character was not in litera- 
ture—it was in building. It is on the architecture of Egypt that 
the colossal greatness of this nation stamped itself, and to this we 
must look especially for our conceptions of its character. Along 
the Nile lie the most stupendous, and the earliest, monuments of 
history ; in their ruins more imposing, a thousand times, than the 
most perfect modern structure. Notwithstanding the magnificence 
and number of these remains, they represent but a small portion 
of the ancient structures. 

Description of the Ruins. *— It is not till the traveler reaches Abydus, about three hundred 
and fifty miles from the mouths of the Nile, that he finds an important temple ruin of the ancient 
period. Meantime, the fertile country has narrowed from its greatest width in the Delta to a 
width, above the head of the Delta, of from seven to nine miles. On either side of this strip 



* The smallest print is not intended for recitation unless directed by the instructor to be 
so used. 



TEMPLE RUINS. i^ 

of land, annually fertilized by The inundations of the river, lie barren 'mountains, with deserts 
beyond. The temple at Abydus, built about 1400 b. c. by King Sethos I., is well preserved. Here, 
as in all temples, the roofs and ceilings are solid blocks of stone. About fifty miles higher up 
the stream, at Denderah, is found a splendid temple completed by the last of the Greek sov- 
ereigns of Egypt, Cleopatra, about 50 b. c. The ruins of Thebes, most important of all, are 
next reached. Some of these are named after the Arab villages built around them— as' the 
ruins of Karuak, of Luxor, of Kourneh, and of Medinet Habou. The date of these temples 
varies from 1600 to 1200 b. c. 

Thothmes III., about 1600 B.C., built the earliest Theban temple which remains in 
any sort of preservation (one of those at Karnak), though there are some temple columns 
standing of earlier date. This king erected before a temple at On (Heliopolis), in the Delta, 
the two obelisks which have been recently transported to London and to New York. 

Amenophis III., about 1500 B. C, erected the two colossal statues at Thebes known as 
the statues of " Memnon," each sixty feet in height. He also built the Theban temples whose 
remains are named after the Arab village of Luxor. Between Luxor and Karnak he placed an 
alley of sphinxes, six hundred in number, each one from 12 to IS feet long, in solid blocks of stone. 
Sethos I., about 1400 B. C, built, besides the temple of Abydus, the Theban temple of 
Kourneh, and began the Great Hall of Karnak. This was finished by his son, Eamses XL, 
1350 B. c. The roofing blocks of its central nave are each 25 feet long. The Great Hall 
was 340 feet by 170, and contained one hundred and thirty-four columns. The twelve largest 
are 75 feet high and 12 feet in diameter. On the top of the capital of a single one of the largest 
columns a hundred men might stand together. Eamses II. also built at Thebes the temple 
now known as the Ramesseum. Beside its ruins lie the fragments of a statue of Ramses 
in red granite, which was 75 feet high, and weighed 887 tons. The Theban temple near the 
Arab village of Medinet Habou was built by Ramses m. about 1270 b. c. 

Above the temple ruins of Thebes lie those of Esneh (Latonpolis). Edfou, Kom Om- 
bos, and of the Island of Philse. All of these belong to the time of the Greek rule over Egypt, 
after b. c. 330, or to the Roman period, after b. c. 30. They are, notwithstanding, absolutely 
Egyptian in character, a most remarkable fact when we remember that other countries ruled by 
Greeks and Romans adopted their forms of art. The peculiar tenacity of Egyptian customs 
in general, which foreign influence could not shake, is illustrated by this permanence of their 
architectural styles. The temple at Edfou is the best preserved, and serves as a type by which 
other ruuis may be imagined in restoration. 

The Island of Philse, five hundred and twenty-six miles from the mouths of the Nile, 
marks the limit of Egypt proper. Rocky formations here create a cataract in the Nile, known 
as the First Cataract, which impedes river navigation to the south. Above this point the char- 
acter of the country begins to change. The narrow strip of fertile soil becomes still narrower, 
lying on one side of the river, and only two or three miles wide. From the First Cataract 
to the Second (about two hundred miles), this country is known as Nubia. Above the Second 
Cataract lies Ethiopia, stretching for three hundred miles to the Third Cataract. Egyptian 
temples are found along the river banks through Nubia and Ethiopia, showing that the civiliza- 
tion as well as the armies of Egypt controlled these countries. 

The most important monuments of Nubia are the rock temples of Ipsamboul, 
executed under Ramses IL about 1350 b. c. The largest of these has a hewn fa?ade 100 feet 
high, with four sitting figures ; portraits of the king, semi-detached from the rock ; each 75 
feet high. The temple is cut into the rock 150 feet, with an interior height of 35 feet, the 
ceiling being supported by colossal human forms. On following pages, see portrait of Thoth- 
mes in., and views at Edfou and Ipsamboul. 



EGYPT. 




The Great Pyramid. 



THE PYRAMIDS AND THE OLD EMPIRE OF MEMPHIS. 

The large number of ruined temples in Ethiopia and 
Nubia led the earlier writers of our century to seek the origins of 

Egyptian civilization in this 
direction. But the same ex- 
planation accounts at once for 
the disappearance of temple 
ruins in the lower Nile valley, 
and for tlie fact that the oldest 
Egyptian civilization centered 
there. The superior fertility 
of the Delta, and the large 
expanse of cultivable ground, 
made this portion of the coun- 
try the seat of earliest civiliza- 
tion, and also, in later time^ 
the most tempting to invasion, and the most open to the destru 
tions of foreign conquest. The proximity of. the Delta to invading 
populations from Arabia and Syria made it peculiarly exposed to 
attack. On this account, the Mohammedan Arabs, in the 7th cen- 
tury A. D., settled and increased especially here. From their time 
dates the entire destruction of ancient city ruins in the lower valley. 
These ruins have been used as building quarries by the new settlers, 
and have in this manner disappeared. 

Only the Pyramids, near the head of the Delta, have been able to 
withstand this process of destruction, and thus they are interesting, 
not only for themselves, but also because they represent the earliest 
epoch of Egyptian history and architecture— the period when Mem- 
phis, at the head of the Delta, was the capital. 

The Pyramids were the tombs of the kings of Memphis— the 
kings of the Old Empire. The kings of the New Empire, whose 
capital was Thebes, were buried in rock tombs still to be seen there 
in the mountain-sides. The important royal names of this period 



THE PYRAMIDS. 9 

have been already mentioned in connection with the ruins of 
Thebes. 

Over sixty j^yramids are still in fair preservation. Of these, the 
greater pyramids of Gizeh, three in number, are the most won- 
derful. The largest of the three covers thirteen acres of ground — 
twice the area of the largest building in the world, St. Peter's at 
Rome — and is 480 feet high.* It contains two tomb chambers for 
the stone coffins of the king and queen. The king who built this 
pyramid was named Chufu f — a name transformed by the Greek 
Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century B. c. and de- 
scribed the pyramids, into Cheops.| The pyramid of Chafra 
(Chephren, in Herodotus) is 447 feet high; of Menkera (Myker- 
inus), 218 feet high. The entrances to the galleries which lead 
to the tomb chambers were originally closed by enormous blocks 
of stone. 

Eeligrion. — The sentiment which prompted the construction of these tombs was analogous 
t-i^t^iat which created the custom of embahiiiug the mummy. Both are expressions of an ideal 

jternal duration, which also stamped itself on the massive and solemn forms of the Egyptian 
■ "Aples. The Egyptians were believers in the immortality of the soul and in rewards and punish- 
ments after death. Their moral law contained many distinctions of great refinement. Their 
worship of animals became, among the lower orders in the times of decay, a degrading idol- 
atry ; but it first originated in the pictorial symbolism by which the forms of animals were used 
to indicate the attributes of various divinities, and so were connected with them. It probably 
was the expression, also, of a reverence for animal life, which strove to limit the killing of 
various kinds of animals for food, by making them sacred. In the submissive nature of the 
brute creation, accomplishing its work without repining, obedient to the natural instinct of 
its species, the creature of habit and routine, the Egyptian found the symbol of the life which 
he himself pursued. 

The Egyptian mythology was polytheistic in form, its deities being personifications of the 
forces of nature, the Sun-god, Ra, at the head. 

The Sphinx.— Near the pyramid of Chafra is the colossal rock-hewn Sphinx, 65 feet in 
height and 142 feet in length, including the extended paws. It consists of a lion's body with 
a human head, the emblem of supreme power and supreme intellect in combination, the Egyp- 
tian symbol of divinity. Between the paws is a small temple 18 feet high. On its wall an 
inscription records that Chafra restored the Sphinx, leaving us to assume an unknown author 
and an earlier date for this wonder of the world. 

* The Strasburg Cathedral tower, the highest in Europe, is 461 feet high ; the dome of St. 
Peters is 429 feet high. 

t Soft " ch " in Egyptian. 

t Pronounced, as always in Greek, hard ' ch." 



10 



EGYPT. 



The oldest standing obelisk, at On (Heliopolis), was erected by a king, Sesortasen I., 
somewhat later than the time of the ^reat pyramids. The obelisks were probably symbols of the 
sun's rays, certainly dedicated to the Sun-god. Amenemha III. constructed the Labyrinth, an 
immense palace, for the use of congresses of the Egyptian magistrates, now utterly ruined, but 
seen and described by Herodotus. Amenemha III. also excavated the immense reservoir called 
Lake Mceris, to control and regulate the inundations of the Nile, by holding over the waters 
of an excessive inundation for the years of drought. The site and outlines of this reservoir, 
with a ruined pyramid in the center, are still visible. Thei'e is a Nile measure, for marking 
the height of the inundations, cut in the rock at the Second Cataract, and inscribed with the 
name of Amenemha III., showing that the armies of the Old Empire had already conquered 
Nubia. 

Tombs of Beni Hassan.— For the period of the " Old Empire" the wall-paintings in 
the rock tombs of Beni Hassan, between Memphis and Abydus, have the deepest interest. All 
phases of EgjT)tian life and industry are here represented in still vivid colors. 

The drawing of the Egyptian pictures is stamped with the formalism and rigidity of the 
people, but its peculiarities are partly the result of decorative principles which reject tints and 
shadings for the sake of strong and positive color effects ; which refuse to represent figures 
out of profile in order to maintain harmony with the flat surface decorated. The earliest known 
drawings and statues are the most life-like, and often thoroughly natural. 



CHRONOLOGY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 



Between the Memphite Empire of the pyramids, the times 
of Chufu, Chafra. Menkera, Sesortasen I., and Amenemha III., 

and the Theban Empire, distin- 
guished by the temple ruins of 
Karnak, Luxor, Medinet Ha- 
bou, Abydus, and Ipsamboul, 
the times of Thothmes III., 
iVmenophis III., S ethos I., 
Eamses II. , and Eamses III. , 
there was an intervening pe- 
riod kuown as the Middle Em- 
pire. 

Owing to insufificient, or as 
yet unsupplied, records, the be- 
ginning and duration of the 
Old Empire are not yet definitely known. The year 2000 B. c. may 
be taken as an approximate round number for its close. It was 




m (.K [^ lujuc a 1, -jiiiOuUi, 
\Mth colo--al fclatue'- of Kam^e'^ II. 



CHRONOLOGY. H 

overthrown by a foreign conquest, by way of Suez, of wandering 
tribes from Arabia or Syria. 

Middle Empire. — The foreign conquerors were known as Hyk- 
sos (Sliejjherds). During their ascendency the Hebrews came into 
Egypt. The date for Joseph is fixed approximately * at b. c. 1750. 
The overthrow of the Hykso power was completed under Thothmes 
III., whose date, about b. c. 1600, begins the time of the— 

New Empire. Its period of greatest glory was under Ramses 
II., B. c. 1350. Besides conquests in Ethiopia, he made repeated 
campaigns through Syria to the upper portions of the Tigris-Eu- 
phrates valley, and possibly to Asia Minor. The Island of Cyprus 
was at this time under Egyptian ascendency. On the mountain- 
side near Beyrout, in Syria, may still be seen immense rehefs of 
figures in Egyptian style, believed to date from these campaigns. 

The son of Ramses II. was Menephtah. He is considered the 
Pharaoh of the Exodus, which would date, in this case, about 
1314 B. c. 

After Ramses III., about 1270 b. c, began the decline of the 
New Empire, which lasted, however, over seven hundi'ed years 
longer. After 1200, it was ruled for a time by kings of an Ethi- 
opian dynasty, and also for a time, by kings of Assyrian blood or 
appointment. 

The final overthrow of Egyptian independence was effected 
by the Persian Cambyses, in b. c. 525. The institutions were not, 
however, changed by this conquest, nor by the succeeding conquests 
of the Greeks and Romans. 

REVIEW OF THE LEADING DATES OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 

Old Empire (Pyramid kings), before b. c. 3000 

Hyksos, Middle Empire, ends about " 1600 

New Empire, ends " 525 

Persian period, ends about " 333 

Greek period, ends about " 50 

Roman period, ends with an Arab-Mohammedan conquest A. D. 640 

* By the computation of Brugsch and Josephus. 



13 



EGYPT 



After the Arab Mohammedan conquest, Egypt was ruled by different Mohammedan dynas- 
ties till after a. d. 1500, when it was incorporated with the Turkish Empire, its present govern- 
ment. 

Christianity made rapid progress in Egypt from the opening of the Christian era, and was 
definitely sanctioned, as in all other Koman provinces, under the Koman Emperor Constantine 
the Great, after a, d. 300. 

The old Egyptian temples were closed under the Roman Emperor Theodosius the Great, 
and pagan worship was forbidden before a. d. 400. 



CHARACTER AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

The decline of the New Empire, after b. c. 1200, concerned cMefly 
the power of Egypt over other nations, and the successions of foreign domina 

tion after B. c. 525 (time of the Per- 
sian conquest), are all subordinate 
to the grand fact that the Egyptian 
institutions and character were not 
changed by the changes of govern- 
ment. The picture of the last Greek 
sovereign, Cleopatra, on the wall of 
the temple of Denderah, is still 
made according to the stiff, sche- 
matic style of Egyptian art. At this 
time (about b. c. 50), after nearly 
five hundred years of foreign rule, 
the killing of a cat, a sacred animal, 
by a Roman soldier, roused a popu- 
lar revolt which came near destroying the Roman army, to which the people 
had quietly submitted before this sacrilege. In the second century after Christ 
the Egyptian style of sculpture even became fashionable at Rome. The name 
of the Roman Emperor Decius, of the third century after Christ, is inscribed 
on the temple of Esneh in Egyptian hieroglyphics. 

This tenacity of fixed character and institutions doubtless orig- 
inated in the peculiar condition^ of geography and climate. The absolute 
dependence of the entire people on the annual inundation of the Nile obliged 
them to regularity of habit in all departments of life, and to constantly recur- 
ring occupations at constantly recurring intervals. Rain is unknown in Upper 
E&ypt' ^^^ rarely falls in the Delta. No dependence whatever is placed on 
this necessity of all other agriculture, which is therefore subject to such 
changes and variations. The Nile differs from all rivers in the world in receiv- 




Temple of Edfoii. 



CHARACTEli AND INSTITUTIONS. 13 

ing no tributaries for a distance of about 1350 miles above its moutbs, through 
Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia, Its annual rise and overflow result from the 
melting of the snows on the lofty mountains of Central Africa, and occur at 
almost exactly the same dates of each succeeding year. The sediment deposited 
during the overflow is a rich fertilizer. Thus the sowing of seed, reaping the 
harvest, repairing the dykes and canals, verification of landmarks, and all 
other agricultural activities, were here forced into a regularity of recurrence 
and arrangement which the climate and conditions of other countries would 
not even remotely allow. 

Besides the fixity and regularity of all other habits of life, determined by 
the controlling occupation, the Egyptians were fixed still further in accustomed 
grooves by an exclusiveness which was also forced upon them. Other nations 
have been modified by contact with those surrounding them, and have often 
wished to change their conditions to resemble others. But the Egyptians 
wished to repel all other nations. Their own valley supplied them with an 
unfailing source of riches, for which no foreign residence could offer them 
a substitute. Their valley was bounded by deserts from which the wan- 
dering nomads were constantly tempted to descend for pillage. Barbarians 
from the wilds of Southern Africa were tempted to descend the Nile. Wander- 
ing tribes from the desert Peninsula of Sinai, from Arabia, or Syria, were con- 
stantly tempted to effect an entrance by way of Suez. Thus the Egyptians 
were obliged to be an exclusive people. They wanted to keep other people 
out of their country, and never wanted to leave it themselves, unless to make 
their own land secure by terrifying other warlike nations. The campaigns 
of their greatest conquerors never really aimed to combine other countries with 
the Egyptian valley, but simply to teach them that they were not to enter it. 

To these two elements of influence — that of constantly recurring habits of 
life, and the antagonism to all modifying external influence — we may add the 
influence of landscape and climate. The Egyptian lived in a valley of 
fertile soil, one thousand miles long, and from two to nine miles wide above 
the Delta, with barren mountains on either side. The monotony of climate 
and surroundings added an emphasis to the more important influences pro- 
duced by the same grand facts. 

From what has been said of the riches of Egypt and its relation to sur- 
rounding nations, we may argue the reasons for a form of government of 
the most absolute despotism. The loss of a single battle might place the 
entire valley at the mercy of the conqueror. There were no mountain fast- 
nesses to prolong resistance or check invasion. The rivers of other countries 
offer obstacles to attack, but the line of the river being also the line of the 



14 EGYPT. 

country, here made attack more easy. Thus the military and governmental 
forces were of necessity massed together — placed at the sole disposal of a single 
man that he might use them with instantaneous and crushing power against 
the foreign foe. The kings of Egypt were not hated as despots; they were 
worshiped as the safety of the nation. And since the form of government 
could not be changed without endangering the people, Egypt was generally 
free from seditions and would-be reformers. A despotic government, devised 
and accepted by the people, reacted upon them and held them to their tradi- 
tional institutions from century to century. 

Thus we understand the system of caste by which each Egyptian fol- 
lowed the occupation of his father, and the division of hereditary occupations, 
by which priests, who were the men of learning, formed one caste, the warriors 
another, agriculturists another. The various trades and occupations were all 
hereditary. There are found cases in the tomb inscriptions, where for twenty 
generations the son is recorded as having followed the occupation of his father. 
The lives of individuals were so bound down by tradition, that in the case of 
the king his hours of eating and drinking and of sleeping were defined by 
unvarying law. 

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION. 

The antiquity of Egyptian civilization, the wealth of the country, the con- 
tinuity of life, and the hereditary transmission of traditional occupations, help 
to explain the perfection of Egyptian science and of the technical and 
mechanic arts. On the threshold of history we are astounded by the exist- 
ence of a nation which surpassed in many arts of civilized life the boasted 
advancement of the nineteenth century. The various applications of electricity, 
the use of steam, photography, printing, and the modern explosive agents, are 
almost the sole exceptions to the general law of Egyptian superiority to, or 
equality with, ourselves, in material things. 

The jealousy with which the priests guarded their knowledge makes the 
extent of their astronomic science uncertain, but it was certainly great. 
The Greek astronomers who flourished in Egypt in the 3d century b. c , were the 
first who announced to the world the true diameter of our earth, the approximate 
distances of the fixed stars, and the revolution of our planetary system round 
the sun. How much of this knowledge they owed to Egyptian studies is un- 
certain, but these were at least the basis of their own results. It was an Egyp- 
tian astronomer who computed, at a later time, for Julius Caesar, the Julian 
Calendar (first corrected under Pope Gregory XVI. in the 16th century A D.). 



CIVILIZATION 



15 



Tlie high perfection reached in geometrical science is implied in the 
construction of the pyramids and temples. (Euclid, the Greek geometer of the 
od century B. c, was a resident of Alexandria.) No buildings, excepting those 
of the Greeks and the Phoenicians, 
taught by Egyptian art, have ever 
exhibited the same accuracy and 
delicacy of masonry construction. 

Blocks of stone over 100 feet in 
length were quarried in certain obe- 
lisks. An obelisk 90 feet high is 
still erect at Thebes. The still 
standing statues of Amenophis 111., 
at Thebes, are 50 feet high in the 
solid block, resting on a solid pedes- 
tal 10 feet high. The roofing blocks 
of the Great Hall of Karnak have 
been mentioned. In the great pyra- 
mids, blocks 20 feet long are com- 
mon. Herodotus tells of a single 
stone hewn into the aspect of a 
small temple, which was moved 
from the quarry at Assouan, at the 
First Cataract, to the Delta of the 
Nile. Its dimensions were 21 feet 
by 31i feet, and 18 feet high. He 
says that the architect engaged in 
moving the stone, which was des- 
tined to stand in the court of a tem- 
ple, heaved so deep a sigh when it 
had reached the outer entrance, that 
the king in pity ordered the work- 
men to leave it standing there. This 
block was seen and described by an 
Arabian physician, Abdulatief, in 
the 18th century after Christ. It has since disappeared. 

The method by which heavy blocks were raised is in dispute, 
but the use of cranes and derricks appears sufficiently certain. The blocks 




Thothmes III. Colossal Head of Red 
Granite, British Museum. 



were moved from the quarries on wooden sledges, 
power on tramways of wood, which were greased. 



These were drawn by man 
A picture at Beni Hassan 



16 EGYPT. 

exhibits tlie moving of a colossal statue iu this way, while a workman pours 
oil under the sledge runners. 

The arts of metallurgy may be argued from the superior cutting of the 
blocks of stone, and they are otherwise attested. The granites habitually used 
in the colossal sculptures turn the best modern steel chisel. The use of steel is 
also argued from the colors used to distinguish different metals in the pictures 
at Beui Hassan. Iron clamps have been found in the pyramids. Gold and 
silver were worked as perfectly as now. The goldbeater's art was practised in 
perfection. Gold and silver wires of extreme tenuity were woven into textile 
fabrics. 

Precious gems were counterfeited in glass, and artificial emeralds were 
made of enormous size. The diamond was used in cutting glass. The specific 
gravity of the British " crown " glass is the same as that made in Egypt. The 
well-known superiority of Venetian glass manufactures in modern times is an 
inheritance from antiquity. There is still in existence an Egyptian mosaic of 
colored glass threads, under two-thirds of an inch square, making the picture 
of a duck, in which the eyeball and the texture of the wing feathers can be 
clearly distinguished. 

Pottery was made, as now, by the potter's wheel. Leather manufac- 
ture was carried to the highest perfection. In the tomb pictures, the leather- 
cutter holds the semicircular knife still used in this trade. Paper was made 
from the papyrus plant. It is from the Greek word papyrus, applied to tbis 
plant, that our word paper is derived. Use was made of papier mache for 
various utensils ; even boats of burden were made of it. Specimens of Egyp- 
tian rope and textile fabrics are common in the museums of Europe. The 
finer Egyptian linens were equal to our finest cambric. The carpenter's 
art was practised iu perfection, as still existing carpentry work demonstrates. 
The furniture was joined, not glued, although glue was known. The gay 
colors and luxurious stuflangs of modern upholstery are found in the articles of 
furniture represented in the tomb pictures. Egyptian wigs are not uncommon 
in the museums. One of the earliest Egyptian kings is noted for the invention 
of a hair pomade ; another for a treatise on medicine. Draughtsmen and a 
checker-board have been found at Thebes. 

The perfection of the chemical arts is implied in the etymology of the 
word Chemistry. The Egyptians called their country Ghemi (the black land). 
The Arabian Mohammedans coined from this word the word Chemistry — that is 
to say, " the Egyptian art." The perfection of chemical art is also implied in 
the use of changing dyes in textile fabrics, such as are found in moire antique 
silk, and in the still brilliant colors of Egyptian paintings four thousand years 



SUMMARY. 17 

oM. The plaster and mortar work bas stood the same wonderful test of 

time, and is far superior to our own. The use of tlie arch principle (contrary to 
supposition of earlier writers of our century) was habitually made in brick 
structures. Many brick arches are still found in Thebes. In temple structures 
the arch was never used ; whence the earlier belief that it was unknown. 



SUMMARY. 

From the modern studies in the hieroglyphic records of Egypt, 
we have passed to monuments of architecture, which require no 
study of ancient languages or of forgotten alphabets to persuade 
us of the genius and greatness of their founders. From the pres- 
ent distribution of ancient ruins, w^e learn to distinguish from the 
epoch of the still existing temples, another of still earher date, repre- 
sented by the pyramids. Memphis and Thebes w^ere the two suc- 
cessive centres of Egyptian history. The massive heaviness of Egyp- 
tian architecture, the rigid aspect of its art, symbolize the fixity and 
unchanging aspects of Egyptian hfe. So far we are deahng only 
with Egypt studied for itself; but in approaching the technical 
and mechanic arts of Egyptian civilization, ^Ye approach the signifi- 
cance of Egypt for later history. One other people shares with her 
the honor of preparing for all later civilization its material basis. 
That people was the Chaldseo- Assyrian. 

QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 

These questions are arranged without reference to the order of the book, to test the general 
knowledge of the student. It is suggested that the answers to these questions, and to those of 
later corresponding sections, be written down in such manner as to make an affirmative sen- 
tence, by combining the question and answer. The pupil will then have, in consecutive 
written form, an abridged summary of the work. The following sentences, combined from 
the first three questions and answers, will serve as an example:— The Moham77iedan conquest 
divides the old Egyptian culture from modern times. It took place about 640 a. d. The Moham- 
medan Arabs, and the Byzantine Greeks or East Romans, passed down the Egyptian arts, as 
then existing, to later times, etc., etc. 

What conquest divides the old Egj-ptian culture from modern times ? Ans. The Moham- 
medan conquest. 

Date this conquest. (Chronology, p. 11.) 



18 EGYPT. 

What nations passed down to later times Egyptian arts as then existing ? Ans. The Moham- 
medan Arabs, and the Byzantine Greeks or East Komans. 

How long had the Romans been in contact with Egypt at the time of the Arab conquest ? 
(Chronology, p. 11.) 

When'did the Greeks come in close contact with Egypt ?— by what conquest ? 

What nation had carried Egyptian arts to Greece and Italy at a much earlier date ? Ans. The 
Syrian Phoenicians, as early at least as b. c. 1500. 

Recapitulate the nations contributing to the general diffusion of Egyptian arts and sciences, 
and the periods after which they were successively in contact with Egypt ? 

Mention important Egyptian ar(s and sciences ? 

What early date may be fixed on as a time before which these arts and sciences were per- 
fectly developed ? Answ-er implied in the following question. 

What other remains belong to the epoch of the pyramids ? 

Where are the pyramids '? 

Why are other remains of their epoch so scanty ? 

In what period did the Jews enter Egypt ? 

Where are the most important remains of the New Enapire? 

Who conquered it ? 

How long was this before the Greek conquest? 

What is the character of art in Egypt under the Greeks and Romans? 

What does this indicate and illustrate (p. 12) ? 

Explain some conditions of life contributing to the tenacity and duration of Egyptian 
civilization (p. 13) ? 

What other nation shares with Egypt the honor of preparing for later civilization its mate- 
rial basis ? 



e 



THE FOUK GREAT POWERS 




CHALD/EA AND ASSYRIA 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 

In the single valley formed by two rivers, the Euphrates and 
Tigris (now belonging to Turkey, but to-day an almost ruined 
country), we find again the natural process by which the more 
fertile lower river valley was the earher seat of empire. The Prov- 




An Assyrian Palace (.Kestoration). 

ince of Chaldaea (the lower valley), capital Babylon, was the first 
seat of empire. The province of Assyria, capital Nineveh, was 
the later military and governmental centre. About 1250 b. c. 
the transfer was efiected, and the rise of Assyria is thus contem- 
porary with the decline of the external power of the New Empire 
of Egypt. 

In distinguishing the Chaldaean Empire from the As- 
syrian, not much more difference is implied than that between the 



20 CHALD^A AND ASSYRIA. 

Empires of Memphis and of Thebes. The civihzation remained 
essentially the same, since the one river valley was open to the same 
influences. It is true that the Chaldeans and Assyrians were not 
originally of one blood, but this made no more difference in the 
unity of civilization than the mixture of different nations in America 
to-day. 

Assyrian Empire. — The most essential difference between the 
Chaldfean and the Assyrian Empire lies in the larger extent of the 
latter. The Chaldaean Empire took in the whole Tigris-Euphrates 
valley, and reached over Syria at times. The Assyrian Empire 
was mucii more firmly fixed in its control of Syria. It also 
extended over Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor to the river Halys 
(haliz). On the East of the Zagros Mountains, wliich lie on the 
east bank of the Tigris, the Assyrian Empire comprehended two 
important provinces between the Caspian and the Persian Gulf — 
viz., Media (North) and Persia (South). It extended beyond these 
provinces at times, but with indefinite boundaries, toward the Indus. 

Media and Babylonia. — The Assyrian Empire, supplanting 
the Chaldsean about 1250 B. c, lasted till about 625 b. c. But the 
change which took place then was only one of external government," 
and the conditions of civilization were unaltered. The Assyrian 
Empire was simply divided into two parts, known as the Median 
and Babylonian Empires. The province of Media revolted, and 
founded an empire which ruled the provinces of Persia, Media, and 
Asia Minor to the Halys. The province of Chaldgea revolted, and 
ruled an empire including the Tigris-Euphrates valley and Syria. 
This empire is called Babylonian, after the capital of Chaldaea, only 
to distinguish it from the earlier Chaldaean state of about the same 
extent. Its second king, Nebuchadnezzar, lived about B. c. 600. 
This division of the Assyrian states into the Median and Babylonian 
Empires lasted only about seventy years, till about 555 B. c. 

Persian Empire. — The province of Persia then revolted, under 
Cyrus, against Media; conquering rapidly this state and Babylonia. 
It also conquered the Lydian Empire, in Asia Minor, beyond the 



P O L I T I C A L H I S T O R Y . 21 

Halys, and the country east of Media and Persia to the Indus, and 
in 525 B. c, under Cambjses, the son of C}tus, subdued Syria, 
Phoenicia, and Egypt. 

The Persian Empire was simply the reunited Assyrian Empire 
remodeled and enlarged. The character of the civilization was not 
revolutionized. The Persian mountaineers took the lead of Western 
Asia simply as governors and soldiers. Their empire lasted till 
333 B. c. This date, already given for the Greek conquest of 
Egypt, may stand also as date for the Greek conquest of all other 
Persian provinces. 

This last conquest eifected a decided change of manners, cus- 
toms and institutions in the Chaldaeo-Assyrian countries, which 
will be noticed under Greek History. But the foregoing sketch 
makes apparent that, in the Tigris-Euphrates valley and dependent 
countries, from the dawn of history to the fall of the Persian Em- 
pire, we are dealing with the same civilization essentially. Thus we 
shall be able to describe it as a whole in the next section, not allow- 
ing the changes of dynasty to confuse us. The changes and gradual 
increase of area are important, however, and the distinctions between 
the empires and the provinces of the same name must be noted. 

TABLE OF EXTENT OF AREAS. 

Chaldean Empire. — TigTis-Euplirates valley, and weak hold of Syria. 

Assyrian Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates valley, Syria, Asia Minor to the Halys, 
Media (the province), Persia (the province), with changing bound- 
aries to the east of these two provinces. Asia Minor, beyond the 
Halys, was a vassal state (the Lydian Empire) till a century before 
the fall of Nineveh. 

5*H f 

® § j^ I Babylonian Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates valley and Syria. 

•2 ^^ -' Median Empire. — Province of Persia, Province of Media, and Asia 

!E .| ^ I Minor to the Halys. 

Persian Empire. — Assyrian States reunited, with addition of the rest of x\sia 
Minor (Lydian Empire), of Egypt, and of the country east of Media 
and Persia to the Indus. 



22 CHALD^A AND ASSYRIA. 

Map Explanation.— The time of the "Four Great Powers" represented on the map is 
that of the division of the Assyrian Empire into the Empires of Media and Babylonia. The 
two additional great Eastern powers of this time were Lydia and Egypt. 

The earlier Chaldsean Empire, in its greatest extent, corresponded to the dimensions of 
" Babylonia" on this map. The extent of the Assyrian Empire would be obtained by uniting 
the States of Babylonia and Media as here represented. The extent of the Persian Empire 
would be obtained by uniting all four Great Powers with the addition of the countries on the 
East, as far as the ludus. The extent of the Persian Empire is also indicated on the map for 
the Empire of Alexander the Great, which corresponded in extent to the Persian, with the 
addition of the Greek states. 

In the use of this map, and all others, it is very desirable to make comparison with the maps 
of a modern geography, and to exercise the historical knowledge gained, by pointing out the 
same facts on a modern map. 

TABLE REPRESENTING THE RELATIONS OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN EMPIRES. 

Egypt. ) 

Clialdea.-Assyria.- i Babylonia.- V ^^^^^^^ Ej^p^.^ 
( Media. — ' 



TABLE OF DATES FOR THE HISTORY OF THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY. 

Chaldsean Empire, — Unknown beginning to about b. c. 1350 

Assyrian Empire. — Ends. " 625 

Median i 

Babylonian ( ^^^l^i^^^--^"^ ^^«^* " ^^^ 

Persian Empire. — Ends with a Greek conquest about " 333 



CIVILIZATION OF CHALD/tO-ASSYRIA. 

Interest in Assyrian and Chaldgean history was awakened in the 
19th century by the discoveries of Sir Henry I^ayard, an English traveler and 
diplomatist. It appears from his excavations that the architecture of the Chal- 
daeans and Assyrians was exclusively of brick. Hence heaps of shapeless ruins 
are all that remain of their structures, as opposed to the still existing massive 
stone remains of ancient Egypt. In the immense mounds, scattered here and 
there below Babylon, may still be traced, however, the original form of the 
Chaldsean temples. 

The temples were immense circular cones ascended by an external spiral 
staircase, on the summit of which the priests made their astronomic observa- 
tions and offered sacrifices. The bricks of these structures are stamped with 
the names of the reigning kings. 

The Chaldsean writing is known as cuneiform (wedge-shaped), because 



CIVILIZATION 



23 



the clay was marked while moist by strokes of a stick, sinking deeply at one 
end and leaving the mark narrower and lighter at the other. The cuneiform 
symbols are believed to be modifications of a pictorial alphabet. This form of 
writing continued in the Assyrian period. In the 
cellars of the Ninevite palaces have been found the 
ancient libraries of the kings — eight-sided bricks cov- 
ered with cuneiform inscriptions. The Assyrian lan- 
guage was related to the Hebrew, Arab, and Phoeni- 
cian, and is deciphered with considerable success by 
the aid of these languages. 

The translation of the cuneiform signs into 
the corresponding sounds was first made possible by 
inscriptions of the Persian period using the cuneiform 
symbols for the Persian language. In these inscrip- 
tions, certain frequently recurring combinations were 
presumed to be the names of kings. Guesses at trans- 
lations of certain combinations as being the names of 
Darius and Xerxes, were proved correct by a vase (now 
in the Louvre at Paris), which contained a Persian 
and an Egyptian inscription side by side. Thus a key 
was obtained to the cuneiform syllabary. The reading 

of Assyrian inscriptions in the cuneiform writing was first achieved in connec- 
tion with a rock inscription at Bagistana in Media, dating from King Darius, 
and repeated in three languages, Persian, Medish, and Assyrian, with the 
same cuneiform symbols. The matter of the Ninevite inscriptions contains 
some interesting legends. They consist mainly, however, of royal chronicles of 
campaigns and conquests. 

The sculptured stone slabs- with which the brick walls of the palaces 
were covered are the most interesting of Assyrian remains. Numbers of these 
are in the British Museum, London. These reliefs furnish very vivid and 
spirited pictures of the lives of the Assyrian kings, their warfare, hunting 
excursions, sacrificial processions, etc. Immense human-headed bulls — emblems, 
like the Egyptian Sphinx, of combined wisdom and power — flanked the palace 
entrances. The ruins of Babylon and of Persepolis offer interesting examples of 
a later period of decorative sculpture based on the same methods. Arched city 
gates and arched drains have been excavated at and near Nineveh. Beautiful ex- 
amples of tile work, and many ivory carvings and carved gems have also been 
found. 




Assyrian Divinity.* 



* Relief slab from Nimroud, in the British Museum. 



24 CHALD^A AND ASSYRIA. 

The mamifactures especially famed were those of textile fabrics and 
carpets. Many of the ornamental patterns of our own time have been derived 
from Babylonian carpets and other fabrics through Greek transmission. Em- 
bossing on metal was also a highly developed art. The iceights and measures 
now in use are mainly traced to Assyria and Babylonia through Greek trans- 
mission. Even the English division of the pound into twenty shillings goes 
back to the Babylonian system. The English shilling is the equivalent of the 
drachma of the Greeks, which was one-twentieth of a Babylonian gold shekel. 
Our division of time by hours of sixty minutes and minutes of sixty seconds is 
also Babylonian by Greek transmission. In luxury and general civilization we 
can scarcely rate the Tigris-Euphrates valley lower than Egypt. The system 
of canals for irrigation was carried to marvelous perfection. 

The government of the successive empires already mentioned was uni- 
versally despotic, for reasons like those which determined the government of 
Egypt. The fertile valley was surrounded by warlike and poorer nations which 
had to be quelled and kept at bay by a strong military and despotic power. The 
government of the subjugated nations was not especially oppressive. They were 
ruled by satraps, who were expected to raise the required tribute, but the in- 
ternal affairs of the subject nations were not disturbed. Rebellious populations 
were punished by wholesale deportations. The conquest of the kingdom of 
Israel by Assyria in 721 b. c, and of Judaea by Babylonia (Nebuchadnezzar) in 
586 B. c, were accompanied by such transfers of population. During the Persian 
period the Jews were mildly treated. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON CHALD/tO-ASSYRIA. 

The system of writing questions and answers in consecutive sentences is again recommended. 

What valley always remained the seat of power, both of Chaldsean and Assyrian rule? 

What was the capital of Chaldaea ? Of Assyria ? 

When did the latter province become head of an empire? 

What was the difference in size between it and its predecessor ? 

Into what two empires was the Assyrian State finally divided ? When ? 

What tribe and province reunited these empires ? When ? 

What additions were made ? 

When was a decided change in the civilization of Western Asia effected ? By whom ? 

What was the condition of art and science with the Assyrians ? 

Why have the buildings been so totally ruined? 

How do we learn to know the lives and occupations of the Assyrians ? 

To what language was theirs related ? In what form are the written remains ? 

What inscription corresponds to the Rosetta Stone as key to the cuneiform writing? 

What nation united the civilizations of Egypt and Assyria, traded with them, and transmitted 
their arts and science to all the nations around the Mediterranean? For answer see next 
section. 



THE PHCENICIANS. 



HISTORY AND CIVILIZATION, 

If we examine the map, we shall notice that direct commerce 
between Egypt and Assyria was obstructed by the deserts of Arabia. 
Syria was the country which connected their civilizations, and which 

borrowed its own civilization 
from its two great neighbors. 
The peoples of Syria were nat- 
urally the mediators and mer- 
chants engaged in exchanging 
the products of the Nile valley 
and of the Tigris-Euphrates val- 
ley. Especially the Phcenicians 
of the Syrian coast were active 
in this exchange; and, look- 
ing out over the waters of 
the Mediterranean, they were 
tempted to engage in the trans- 
port of Egyptian and Assyrian 
luxuries to the then uncivilized peoples of Greece, of Italy, and still 
remoter countries. 

The Phoenicians were experts in the manufacture of a dye— 
the Tyrian purple— made from a small shell-fish. Each shell-fish 
yielded a drop of liquid, and the dye had to be manufactured where 
the shell-fish were dredged. The supply of shell-fish had become 
exhausted on the coast of Syria. It was still plentiful on the shores 
of Greece. Here, then, the Phoenicians established factories and 




Foundations of the Acropolis at Balbek. 



26 T H E P H (E N I CI A N S . 

traded with the Greeks. In Cyprus they rained for copper, from 
Italy they brought hides, from Spain they procured silver, from 
Cornwall and the Scilly Islands they brought tin. They have also 
left abundant traces of traffic in Ireland and in Scandinavia. 

It has been held by some historians that they visited Central America. 
Before 600 b. c, under the direction of the Egyptian king- Xecho, tliey circum- 
navigated Africa. The dates of their earliest voyages must reach considerably 
back of B. c. 1300, for at this time they were already sailing to Ireland and 
Great Britain. 

The great cities of Phcsnicia were Aradns, Tripolis, Berytus (the 
modern Beyrout), Tyre, Sidon, Acca (Acre). The most important Phoenician 
remains in Syria are at Balbek — the foundations of its Acropolis. The three 
largest blocks of stone are each 64 feet long, 15 feet thick, and 15 feet high, 
and each one is estimated to weigh aljout 1,100 tons. The date of these famous 
foundations is uncertain, but probably earlier than 1000 B. c. They are the 
most stupendo'.is existing monuments of Phoenician science under Egyptian 
tuition. 

When the Phoanicians began their voyages the other Mediter- 
ranean nations were comparatively barbarian. Through intercourse with them 
these nations — Greeks and Italians first of all — obtained the basis of a civiliza- 
tion which they were to transform and develop in new ways. 

About 850 B. C. the Phcenicians, who had already many colonies on the 
northern shores of Africa — in modern Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco — founded a 
new one, Carthage (in modern Tunis), which became the head of all the others. 
It acquired ascendency over part of Sicily, over Corsica, Sardinia, and the coasts 
of Spain. After this time the mother country rather declined, and Carthage 
partly took its place. The Greeks had meantime become active merchants and 
sailors in the Eastern Mediterranean, pushing out their older teachers. The 
prosperity of the greatest Phoenician city, Tyre, was crippled by the campaigns 
of Nebuchadnezzar at the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews, 
586 B. c. 

Chronology of Phcsnicia.— Down to the year b.c. 1000, and for cen- 
turies before, the Phoenicians were the civilizing force and sole commercial 
power of the Mediterranean. Under this influence Greece and Italy developed, 
gradually assuming independent importance after that date. 



HISTORY x\ND C I V IL I Z A T I X. 27 



GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON THE PHCENICIANS. 

Why were the Phoenicians, among Eastern nations, especially devoted to traffic and com- 
merce? Ans. By reason of geographical position. 

What was this position ? 

With what European nations did they come in contact? How early? 

Name some of their colonies. 

Name the important cities of the mother country. 

EoAv shall we estimate the civilization of the Phoenicians? A?is. By knowing that it was 
Assyrian and Egyptian amalgamated. 

What European nation was first influenced by them? 

What manufacture caused the contact ? 

What first brought the Greeks into hostile contact with the East ? (See page 28.) 

V.^hen ? Ans. About b. c. 500. 

How long had a peaceful intercom-se lasted before this time ? Ans. From the earliest date 
of Phoenician visits to Greece. 



SYNCHRONISM OF ANCIENT EASTERN HISTORY. 

Pyramid kings of Egypt, before b. c. 2000 

Early kings of Chaldaea, before " 2000 

Phoenician traffic between these countries, before '' 2000 

Joseph in Egypt, about , '' 1750 

Thothmes III. (Obelisks of New York and London), New Empire. ... " 1600 

Amenophis III. (Ruins of Luxor, and colossal statues of " Memnon ".) '• 1500 

Sethos I. (Great Hall of Karnak) " 1400 

Ramses II. " " " 1350 

Menepbtah (the Jewish Exodus) ' 1314 

Phcenicians trading to Britain * , " 1300 

Ramses III. (Ruins of Medinet-Habou, at Thebes' " 1270 

Rise of Assyria and decline of Egypt, after " 1250 

Empire of Solomon, Phoenicians build the Jewish temple, about " 1000 

Foundation of Carthao-e -' 850 

Israelite captivity (Assyrian) " 721 

Division of Assyria into Median and Babylonian Empires " 625 

Africa circumnavigated, before " 600 

Jewish captivity under Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon " 586 

Persian Empire unites the Median and Babyloninn States " 555 

Persian Cambyses conquers Egypt and Syria " 525 

Persian Empire conquered by Greeks " 333 



* Still earlier control of the Mediterranean is implied bj" this date. 



28 SYNCHRONISM. 

Among the foregoing dates, the three fives and three threes are the 
most important. They may be taken as the turning pcints of all ancient his- 
tory. Cyrus did not erect the Persian Empire in a single year, nor did Alex- 
ander the Great overturn it in a year. But B. c. 555 and b. c. 833 are as exact 
as any single dates would be, and they are easily memorized. 

B. C. 555, taken as a central date for the rise of the Persian Empire, may 
recall also the conquest of Egypt, which so rapidly followed its rise, and the 
fall of the great Assyrian State, which shortly preceded. Before b. c. 555, the 
great empires of the Nile and of the Tigris-Euphra es valley had pursued their 
course for centuries without progress and without essential change. Different 
dynasties had replaced one another in either valley ; the area of external conquest 
had been expanded, diminished, or divided; but the East was always the East. 
Great material prosperity, the highest perfection of mechanical art, fabulous 
luxury, despotic power of the chief, willing slavery of the masses, are always 
the elements of its history. But the expansion of Persia to the shores of Asia 
Minor brought the East into conflict with a new system of military organism, 
governmental institutions, and individual culture — that of the Greeks. 




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"ZH Dorians 
m Jchatftns find Jeolicui-y 



GREECE. 



THE GREEKS OF LATER AND MODERN HISTORY. 

The attention of students is o-enerally diverted from the later history 
of Greece by the glories of its ancient civilization, but the Greeks have, not- 
withstanding, always remained a highly refined and highly civilized people 

since the time of ancient great- 
ness. The misfortunes of his- 
tory have fallen with especial 
weight upon the mother coun- 
try, and the relative insignifi- 
cance of its power among the 
modern European States some- 
times obscures the fact that the 
Greeks are very numerous out- 
side of their peninsula, in the 
Turkish territories of the East- 
ern Mediterranean. They are 
much more influential in the 
East as individuals than the 
power of their state would im- 
ply, and everywhere noted for 
success in business and for an 
intelligent use of wealth. In 
polish and courtesy they are at least the equals of any other nation in Europe. 
The dependence of the Turks on their services is indicated by the fact that 
every mosque in Constantinople is the work of a Greek architect, and they are 
frequently employed in Turkish diplomatic service. But the territory of modern 
Greece has only enjoyed national independence from Turkey since 1829, and 
during the preceding four centuries it suff'ered more from Turkish misrule than 
it has in so short a time been able to retrieve. 

Before the Turkish conquest, about a. d. 1400, this territory was a 




Atheuiau Acropolis. (From the South.) 



30 GREECE. 

portion of the Roman Empire, called at tliat time the "Byzantine" or "East 
Roman." This name is given the Roman Empire of the East after the loss of 
its Western provinces, in the 5th centiuy a. d. All comitries of this portion of the 
empire, comprising all those afterwards included in European and Asiatic 
Turkey, were dominantly Greek in population and culture at the time of the 
Turkish conquest. They were so before they became provinces of the Roman 
Empire, and were, in fact, the countries from which those of the Western 
Mediterranean had borrowed their civilization, either before or after they had 
become Roman as to government. 

The territory of the Greek peninsula had been, as it is now, rela- 
tively insignificant since the loss of independence by its numerous petty states 
in the 4th century b. c. But at this time the Greeks had become masters of the 
wealth and luxury of tlie West Asiatic countries and of Egypt. Therefore their 
importance as individuals increased abroad a thousandfold more than it de- 
clined at home, so that first the Eastern and then the Western Mediterranean 
was entirely permeated by tlieir culture, which thus became that of the Empire 
of Rome. Through that medium especially it has always influenced later 
history. This influence of the Greeks is explained by affinities of blood and 
language, which allied them to the other nations of Europe. It is also ex- 
plained by the fact that, being by geographical position nearest to the East, 
their transformation and adoption of Eastern civilization made them the 
civilizers of the West of Europe. The Phoenicians had done much for the West- 
ern Mediterranean in material things before Greek influence began, but after it 
began it gradually covered over or transformed the Phcenician elements. 



DIVISIONS OF RACE AND LANGUAGE. 

Europe in Pre-historic Times, — In passing from the great empires of 
Northeastern Africa and Southwestern Asia to the continent of Europe, it is 
desirable to form some conception of the relations of its different peoples as to 
race. In describing the early commerce of the Phoenicians with the Mediter- 
ranean nations, the latter have been spoken of as otherwise without civilization. 
This is true in the sense of luxuries and of many mechanical arts. But the 
peoples of Europe, though infinitely below the Egyptians and Assyrians in 
material civilization before they borrowed this civilization through Phoenician 
commerce, had lived a settled agricultural life, with monogamic family organ- 
ism, before they migrated from Asia, and they possessed, before entering 
Europe, many interesting traits and institutions, which are studied by the 
affinities of language. 



DIVISIONS OF RACE. 31 

Europe had been previously peopled by a race of which the Lapps 
and Finus of the North are a remnant. The lake dwellings of Switzerland, now 
submerged, but originally built on piles in the water, are remains of this earlier 
time. This race was replaced by the one from which most of the present nations 
of Europe are descended. These were generally established over Europe before 
B. c. 1500. They are divided into families according to languages. 

THE ARYAN RACE. 



Celtic ancestors of modern. 



Germanic ancestors of modern. 



i Irish. 

I Welsh. 

I Highland Scotch. 

[ French. 

Anglo-Saxons. 

Dutch. 

Germans. 

Danes. 

Norwegians and Swedes. 
/Russians. 
I Poles. 
Slavonic ancestors of modern \ Bohemians. 

Servians. 
Bulgarians. 
f Latins. 

Greelv-Italic ancestors of ■; Samnites and other Italian tribes. 

(^ Greeks. 

(The early population of Spain was partly Iberian, partly Celtic. The Iberian 
element continues in the Basques of the Pyrenees, but its language has no 
affinities with others in Europe. The Turks and Hungarians are much later 
arrivals in Europe, also without affinity to its other nations.) 

Besides these families settled in Europe, others remaining in Asia belonged 
to the same race — the Phrygians {Trojans) and Armenians of Asia Minor, the 
Persians (of the province of Persia), and the Hindoos. The entire race is some- 
times called the Indo-European, because its members are found both in India 
and Europe. It is now more generally called *' Aryan," from Aria, a province 
of the Iranian plateau (modern Afghanistan), an early centre of the race. It is 
from this province that the Hindoos are thought to have passed, before loOO B. c.^ 
down the Cabul valley into the valley of the Indus, whence they spread to the 
country of the Ganges. The Aryan race is also called Japhetic. 



32 



GREECE 



Opposed to the Aryans in temperament and forms of language are the 
Semites — namely, the Jews, Phoenicians, and other Syrian populations, the 
Arabs, and the Assyrians. The languages of these peoples are closely related. 
They resemble the Aryan languages in having inflections and parts of speech, 
but the stock of words is different. 

The Egyptian language appears to contain primitive forms of both 
Aryan and Semitic words. It is called Hamitic. 

The word Turanian is applied to all the languages of Asia which are 
not Semitic or Aryan. These languages, otherwise very dissimilar, resemble 
each other in the use of nouns for all parts of speech. They are not inflected, 
and belong to the most primitive and undeveloped form of language. The 
Chinese is an instance; the Turkish, another. The word Turanian is formed 
from Turan, the steppe plateau of the Turcomans, north of the Iranian plateau 
of Persia and Afghanistan. Here were the hereditary enemies of the ancient 
Aryans, and from their country is named the class of languages opposed to theirs. 

The Chaldsean language contained words of all classes — Aryan, Sem- 
itic, Hamitic, and Turanian. 

GREEK MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. 
Aryan Period. — From the foregoing sections two cardinal features of 




Temple of Theseus, Athens. 

Greek history are explained. First, we understand how the modifications of 
Eastern civilization made by the Greeks were in time generally adopted by the 



MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. 



33 



other Aryans of Europe, because the natural movement was one from East to 
West. Greece, being most eastern of the South-European countries, devel- 
oped first, and controlled the rest in later ancient civilization. The rise of the 
Roman Empire was favorable to this extension of Greek civilization, and 
spread it still further. 

Secondly, we understand why studies in the books of the most ancient Per- 
sians, the Zend-Avesta (written long before the time of the Persian Empire), and 
of the Hindoos, the Vedas, throw an interesting light on Greek mythology. 
From these books it appears that the ancient Aryans believed in a constant 
struggle between light and darkness, between the powers of good and of evil 
(teachings of the Zend-Avesta). They believed (Vedic hymns) that the thunder- 
storm was such a contest of good and evil 
spirits, in which the latter tried to keep away 
the fertilizing rain. The lightning dispelled 
the evil spirits of the black clouds, and 
allowed the rain to fall. This was the origin 
of the conception of Jupiter (Greek, Zeus). 
The power of light, as symbolized in the 
clear and open sky, was personified in Min- 
erva (Greek, Athene), The triumph of the 
sun over the night was personified in the con- 
ception of Apollo. The dawning sun was 
conceived as a child with wings, the origin 
of the later Cupid {Ei^os). 

In later Greek paganism, the Jupi- 
ter grew to be the personification of su- 
preme power of will. The Juno was his 
consort. Minerva grew to be a personifica- 
tion of spiritual enlightenment. Apollo also 
became a personification of cultivation and 
enlightenment ; of interest in the beautiful, 
in music, and in physical health and exer- 
cise. 

INIany forms of Greek mythology are not to be distinguished in the older 
Aryan conceptions-Diana, the moon-goddess, the personification of chastity ; 
Vulcan, the worker in metals and artificer; Mars, the god of the combat and 
the warrior ; Neptune, the god of the sea and the rivers. Hercules, half hero, 
half divinity, was the personification of physical energy devoted to civilization.' 
Mercury, originally the cloud divinity, represented the flocks of the sky. and so 




Statue of Minerva. 
( Vatican Museum, Rmne.) 



34 



GREECE, 



became patron of flocks on earth; then, for this reason, the god of wealth 
and merchants in general ; the swift traveler, because the merchants were trav- 
elers, and therefore the messenger of the gods. Bacchus, the harvest divinity 
and god of the vine, was represented in Greek sculpture without intoxication. 
Venus, the goddess of love, was borrow^ed from the Phoenician worship of the 
Mother-Earth, and was represented with much nobility and modesty by the 
Greek sculptors. 

Our estimate of Greek paganism depends entirely on the time of 
which we speak of it. In the Aryan period it was a childish but simple w^orship 
of natural forces. In the time of Homer, b. c. 1000, the Greeks were not shocked 
by the conception of deities moved by human passions and weakness. As their 
civilization developed in noble qualities and formed great characters, these 
reacted on the conceptions of mythology, idealized and purified them. A con- 
ception of a supreme being formed itself, in w^hich the ideals of their mythology 
represented, at least to certain Greeks, various sides of one divine power. When 
the Greek states decayed, and life became licentious 
and corrupt, after 330 b. c, the more trivial aspects 
of the old belief made it an object of ridicule to 
many. Widened views of the world shook the faith 
of the multitude in their divinities, without bring- 
ing them nearer to true religion, and superstition 
was not the less dominant because skepticism large- 
ly prevailed. The Latin poets belong to a later 
epoch than the Greek, and came under the influ- 
ence of the Greek mythology in this later period. 
The Latin names are generally used, however, in 
this chapter, as being the most familiar. 

The Greek religion was not represented by a 
distinct priestly caste, but the knowledge and 
practice of its rites and observances were heredi- 
tary in certain families. The temples were State 
sanctuaries, which served also as the civic treasuries. They w^ere also the 
museums of art, for the most important statues, pictures, and other works of 
art were those dedicated in them, and from century to century the store of these 
was constantly increasing. Of all Greek temples, that dedicated to the x\the- 
nian hero-king, Theseus, is the best preserved, and serves as a type by which 
other ruins may be restored in imagination. It was erected about 460 B. c. 




Head of the Apollo Belvedere. 
{Vatican Museum.) 



* The Belvedere Apollo statue has its name from the Vatican Belvedere Garden, arranged 
by Pope Julius 11. as a studio for sculptors, in 1506. 



EARLY HISTORY. 35 

EARLY HISTORY. 

Early Settlements. — Xo records exist of the migrations by 
which Greece was settled. The Piirygian highlands ol* Northwest- 
ern Asia Minor, the country about Troy, and the whole coast of 
Asia Minor, are found peopled, at a later da}^, by Greeks. Part of 
this population returned from Greece, but this country was also the 
one from which the migrations started. By way of Thrace and 
Macedonia, and by way of the islands of the Archipelago, the pas- 
sage was an easy one. Colossal fortifications are found in the Pelo- 
ponnesus and elsewhere of the pre-historic time. The early settlers 
are named Pelasgians by the Greek historians. 

The first authentic fact of Greek history is a movement from 
the north central mountains of Greece (Doris), about B. c. 1100, by 
which the more civilized peoples of the South were subjugated. This 
movement is known as the Doric migration, and the Greeks, fi'om 
this time on, are known as divided into the two tribes of Dorians 
and lonians. A third tribe, the ^olian, simply represents the con- 
tinued existence, in some parts, of the older stock, otherwise divided 
into Doric and Ionic. The Dorians were the hardier and rougher 
people. Their most important and influential settlements were 
Argos and the province of Argohs; Sparta, and the province of 
Laconia, all in Peloponnesus. 

The Ionic G-reeks were those of the eastern shores of Greece, 
of the islands of the xirchipelago, and the shore of Asia Minor 
(Ionia proper). The province of Attica, capital Athens, was the 
leading Ionic state of Greece proper. On the shore of Asia Minor, 
Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna, and Phocoea were important Ionic towns. 
The lonians, being the maritime Greeks, as distinguished from the 
hardier Dorian mountaineers, were more vivacious and subtle. Open, 
by temper and position, to the influence of Asiatic civilization, they 
were also more refined. 

Siege of Troy. —The disturbances of the Doric migrations led 
to a general colonial movement towards the shores of Asia Minor, 



36 



GREECE. 



whence the ancestors of the Greeks had come. The siege of Troy 
was doubtless an actual historic event of this colonial movement. 
It is not necessary, however, to suppose that the poems of Homer 
founded on this siege — the Iliad and the Odyssey — are historic 
accounts. They idealize and celebrate the period of colonial con- 
quest, making the siege of Troy a theme for depicting the heroic 
exploits and warlike valor of the time. 

Hom.er is supposed to have lived about 1000 b. c. His place of birth is 
disputed. He was certainly an Ionic Greek. The poems attributed to him are 
the first and greatest works of Greek literature. The " Iliad " describes an 
episode of the siege of Troy — the quarrel of the lieroes Agamemnon and Achilles. 
The " Odyssey " describes the wanderings of Ulysses, the wisest of the Greeks, 
returning from the siege. 



GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE AND ITS COLONIES. 

The Peloponnesian province of Laeonia, conquered and ruled by 
the Doric Spartans, is bordered on the west by Messenia. Sparta, in the 8th 

and 7th centuries B, c, subjugated 
this province. 

Above Messenia lies Elis. 
Its capital, Olympia, was the seat of 
the famous gymnastic games held 
every four years after B. c. 776. This 
year is called the first Olympiad, and 
the Greeks reckoned time by this era. 
Great importance was attached to 
this gymnastic festival, because the 
military protection of each indepen- 
dent Greek state was confided to the 
personal valor of the richer and more 
highly born citizens. GjTiinastics 
were, therefore, an essential part of 
state education. 

In connection wixh these bodily 
exercises, the art of sculpture be- 
came a natural expression of Greek life. At Olympia might be seen, in later 
antiquity, over three thousand statues of athletes. Here was tlie temple which 



lllll 


^'^nHf^Wllllli Hffl 


1 


1 


^■n 




1 


1 »^ 




1 


Is 





Jupiter Temple at Olyinpid. 
(Restoration.) 



GEOGRAPHY 



37 



contained the famous colossal Jupiter by Phidias, the greatest Greek sculptor 

(oth century b. c). Like other important temple statues, it was made of ivory 

and gold— ivory for the flesh, gold for the drapery. This statue still existed in 

the 5tli century after Christ. 

The province of Achaia (Northern Peloponnesus) was not an impor- 
tant state until after the overthrow of Greek freedom (b. c. 330), when the 

Achaian league of cities became prominent. 

Sicyon and Corinth were important Doric states. The latter, being an 

important centre of Mediterranean commerce, was famed for great wealth. 
The province of Argolis brings us back once more to the northern 

border of Laconia. Argos was the lead- 
ing city, heading the most important 

state of Greece down to B. c. 777. Here 

was the colossal gold and ivory Juno by 

Polyclitus (5th century b. c), of which 

the Ludovisi Juno in Rome is a copy. 

Mycenae and Tirynth, strongholds of the 

Pelasgian period, have their immense 

walls still standing. At Nemea and on 

the Isthmus of Corinth gymnastic games 

were held. 

Arcadia, the central province of 

the Peloponnesus, was also the least 

important. It was inhabited mainly 

by shepherds, furnishing the adjective 

" Arcadian " to later poets. 

Attica.— Beyond the Isthmus of 
Corinth lay first the little state of INfe- 
garis, then the Peninsula of Attica. 
Opposite the Piraeus, the seaport of Athens, lies the island of Salamis, where 
the Persian fleet was defeated in b. c. 480. On the opposite side of Attica is 
the field of Marathon, where the Persian army was defeated in B. c. 490. The 
island of Euboea stretches above this coast, with the important cities of Ere- 
tria and Chalcis. 

Bceotia. — Above Attica is the low and marshy province of Boeotia. Its 
inhabitants were proverbial for a dull and heavy temperament. But Plat^a, 
on its southern border, was a quick-witted and public-spirited community. 
Thebes was the important city of Bceotia. Leuctra and Choeronea were sites of 
important battles in the 4th century b. c. 




Juno of the Ludovisi ViJJa, Kome. 



38 GREECE. 

Phocis, — Xext to the west, along the Corinthian Gulf, lies Phocis, with 
the famed Apollo Sanctuary of Delphi, where the Pythiau games were cele- 
brated. Here was the leading Oracle of the Greeks. A priestess seated on a 
tripod placed over a cleft in the earth, from which vapors rose casting her into 
trance, gave disjointed and fragmentary answers to the questions which were 
put to her by the priests on behalf of those consulting the oracle. These 
answers, when reduced to writing, were generally enigmatic, containing a 
double meaning. But the advice of the Delphic priests had also great weight, 
and for centuries their influence was exerted for the good of Greece. 

Locris and Doris. — On either side of Phocis were the two provinces of 
Locris. On the north vs^estern side of Phocis is Doris. 

Northern and Western Provinces.— From the northern Locris 
we pass into Thessaly, along the sea shore, by the pass of Thermopylae, 
where three hundred Spartans died for the liberties of Greece, resisting the 
strength of the entire Persian Empire, B. c. 480. The large province of Thes- 
saly was never important in Greek history. Here is the battlefield of Pharsalia, 
where Pompey was defeated b}^ Julius Csesar. The western provinces of 
Epirus, Acarnania and ^^tolia, are also unimportant. On the northeast prom- 
ontory of Acarnania, off Actitim, the Roman Antony was defeated by Augustus. 

This rugged and barren western side of Greece looks over to the almost 
equally unimportant eastern side of Italy. The leading states of the two 
countries were turned away from each other, and thus, as well as by position 
further west, Italy w^as destined to later development than Greece. 

The mountain chain which divides Greece from Macedonia terminates on 
the east in Mount Olympus, the fabled home of the gods. 

Climate. — From these mountains to the southern capes of the Pelo- 
ponnesus the distance is about 350 miles ; but betw^een these limits are 
comprised all the changes of climate and production found otherwise be- 
tween the climate of North Germany and that of extreme Southern Italy. The 
mountain chains which separate the various provinces destined Greece to be 
the home of a series of independent states. Its variety of independent and 
individual life is in marked contrast to the monotony of the Eastern civiliza- 
tions. The deeply indented coasts and multitude of surrounding islands made 
navigation a necessary art. A spirit of enterprise was early developed, which, 
in the increase of population, led to the establishment of almost countless 
colonies beyond the limits of the mother country. 

The Colonies. — Besides the colonial cities along the shore of Asia Minor, 
of which Smyrna still exists, and the important islands along this coast of 
Lesbos. Chios, Samos, and Rhodes, there w^ere settlements on the promontories 



GEOGRAPHY. 39 

of Chalcidice, jutting- out from Macedonia. Especially important here were 
Olyntlius and Potidsea. On the Bosphorus was situated Byzantium (Constanti- 
nople). On the Black Sea, Odessa, Sinope, and Trebizond still remain from the 
multitude of cities which lined these coasts. In Crete and Rhodes entirely, in 
Cyprus partially, the earlier Phoenician settlements gave way to Greek. 

On the African coast of Cyrene, west of Egypt, were important Greek 
colonies. The whole coast of Southern Italy was lined with them to such an 
extent that it was called Magna Grecia (Great Greece). Naples was the most 
important. From Sybaris our word " sybarite " is derived. Crotona was the 
home of Pythagoras, the philosopher of the 6th century. On the island of 
Sicily, where the Phoenicians gradually encroached on the western part, the 
eastern half belonged to the Greeks. Syracuse was the most important city, 
the home of Archimedes, Greek geometrician and mechanician of the 3d century 
B. c. The eastern coast of Spain and the southern coast of France had several 
colonies. Marseilles was the leading Greek colony of this part of the Mediter- 
ranean. From this port it is thought that the Greek navigator Pytheas reached 
Iceland in the 4th century B. c. It is certain that he sailed far to the north of 
Great Britain. 

All the colonies above mentioned were established before 555 b. c. Greece 
at this time controlled the commerce of the Eastern Mediterranean, and dis 
puted with. Carthage that of the West. 



SPARTA AND ITS INFLUENCE IN GREECE. 

The great law-giver of the Spartans was Lycurgus, 9th cen- 
tury B. c. His peculiar institutions are best understood by noting 
that this tribe lived in the midst of the eaiiier population of La- 
conia, which they held in subjection, and from which they had 
taken the fertile lands of the Eurotas valley. Large numbers of the 
conquered population had sunk to the condition of helots, or slaves. 
They were treated with great severity, and none of them had poht- 
ical rights. 

The Spartans were the landed aristocracy. No intermarriage 
with other Greeks was allowed to destroy the purity of their blood. 
Each individual Spartan was a nobleman. But to maintain this 
ascendency of conquest, of government, of birth, and of possessions, 
each Spartan was bound to submit himself to the strictest military 



40 



GREECE. 



discipline. He was a warrior for life. Taken from the mother's 
care at the age of seven, he was thenceforward subject to tlie disci- 
pline of the camp. The men messed together at all times, like 
soldiers. Their fare was meagre and plain. The gymnastic exer- 
cises were obligator}^, even on the 
women. The discipline, endurance, 
and bravery of these men were be- 
yond description. They entered bat- 
tle as if on parade, and remained 
victors or dead on the field. The 
seK-confidence of the Spartans was 
supreme, but it did not lead them 
into a career of conquest, or to 
dream of general dominion. Their 
discipline could only be preserved 
by isolation. Spartans were there- 
fore not allowed to travel or to carry 
on commerce. Frequent battles 
with the same state were avoided, 
lest their enemies might learn vic- 
tory from frequent defeats. Wars which would entail t'oo long an 
absence from home were avoided. Even music was controlled by 
law, and care was taken that no languishing and tender melodies 
should effeminate the people. 

Government. — Royal ambition was not allowed to carry the 
state out of its accustomed grooves. Hence the peculiar and other- 
wise unknown institution of a double monarchy. One king was to 
check and cross the plans of the other if he attempted political 
innovations. The mutual jealousy of the two kings kept them busy, 
and prevented them from carrying out plans for individual aggran- 
dizement. But monarchy was the form of government, because, 
the army and state being inseparable, permanent generals were 

* From a small bronze statuette in Berlin, found at Dodoua, in Epirus. A spear is to be 
imagined as held in tbe right hand. 




Early Greek Warrior.* 



fePARTA AND ITS INFLUENCE. 41 

required. The kings were also controlled by an elective committee 
of five state officers called Ephors. 

Influence on other States. — The military power of the Spar- 
tans, their wariness, caution, and conservative self-restraint, made 
them finally the arbiters of the Greek states, after the decline of Argos, 
B. c. 777. Their mediation and interference regulated the relations 
of the other civic communities. The Spartan rigidity, narrowness, 
and exclusiveness were peculiar to themselves, but their example 
sustained, among the other Greek states, the ideal of a government 
in which the wealthier citizens bore its burdens, were its protectors 
and defenders, subject to military discipline, fighting in the ranks 
as private soldiers, and training their bodies from youth, by con- 
stant physical exercise, to the public service. Education was there- 
fore universally controlled by the state. The idea of citizenship, of 
political rights, was associated with that of personal military serv- 
ice, and connected with hereditary birth. Large numbers of slaves 
were found in all Greek communities, but outside of Sparta they 
were humanely treated. The dimensions of the Greek states were, 
from a modern standpoint, absurdly small— generally consisting only 
of a single city, with the surrounding territory. The methods and 
ideals of Greek self-government were inconsistent with large dimen- 
sions, because the citizens managed their own afiairs in personal 
concourse. Government by deputy — "representative government" 
— was unknown. But tlie small scale of the Greek states was favor- 
able to the development and training of individual character. 

ATHENS AND ITS INFLUENCE IN GREECE. 

Hereditary monarchy, the form of government in the time of 
Homer, was gradually abandoned in the Greek states, W'ith the 
peculiar exception noted of Sparta. The last important Greek king 
w^as Pheidon, of Argos, b. c. 777. 

Aristocratic republics then became the rule. With the in- 
crease of commerce, and the rise to wealth of non-landholding and 



42 GREECE. 

unprivileged inhabitants of the republics, this rule of the old aris- 
tocracies was often found oppressive. This feeling became general 
in the 0th century b. c. Down to this time the foundation of col- 
onies had been the vent and outlet of such discontent, but the 
coasts open to this enterprise had all been occupied. Resort was 
now had, sometimes, to concessions of political rights to hitherto 
unprivileged members of a community. 

The Greek Tyrants. — In other cases, some member of the 
aristocracy put himself at the head of a revolt of the lower orders, 
and founded a ''Tyranny." This meant simply a one-man power, 
which represented the popular side against the aristocracies. But 
the Tyrants were always bitterly hated by the order which they 
betrayed. An odious significance was gradually attached to the 
term, from the arbitrary acts and cruelties into which the Tyrants 
were forced in order to keep their power. Especially famed and 
odious were Polycrates, Tyrant of Samos (6th century), and Diony- 
sius. Tyrant of Syracuse (4th century). 

In Athens both expedients above mentioned were resorted to. 
Hence, in the 6th century b. c, the Reforms of Solon and the 
*' Tyranny" of Pisistratus. 

Solon, known as one of the wisest of the Greeks, was a member of 
the privileged class, but sought to still the dissensions with which his 
country was distracted by concessions to the democratic spirit. He 
based the voting privilege and the obligations of state service, which 
were inseparable in Greek conception, on the possession of property 
instead of on descent from the already privileged citizens. But the 
newly admitted citizens now became also hereditary transmitters 
of the citizenship. A wealthy non-resident of Attica could not be- 
come an Athenian citizen, or the father of citizens, by moving 
there. 

The people were divided into four classes, according to amount 
of property. All could vote for officers of state, but eligibility to 
the higher offices was confined to the higher classes. The reforms 
of Solon also attempted to alleviate the economic distress which was 



ATHENS AND ITS INFLUENCE. 43 

one cause of trouble. But this distress kept the poorer population 
dissatisfied with Solon's measures, while his own order was dissatis- 
fied with the amount of coucession. 

Pisistratus. — Of the three parties in the state — reactionists, 
moderates (Solon's party), and radicals — the latter gained the lead- 
ership under Pisistratus, one of the privileged class, who put himself 
at the head of the democracy, and became "Tyrant" in b. c. 560. 
He ruled with wisdom and glory, and did not disturb the legislation 
of Solon, who thus was the founder of the democratic constitution 
of Athens. But the odium attaching to a one-man power, which 
the personality of Pisistratus had conquered, ruined the government 
of his sons, who succeeded him after b. c. 527. His son Hipparchus 
was slain, and his son Hippias was exj^elled and took refuge with the 
Persians, b. c. 510. 

The reforms of Clisthenes now increased the democratic tendencies of 
Solon's constitution. Among liis institutions was the device of Ostracism, so 
named from ostrakon, the oyster-sliell, on which the vote was written when the 
measnre was made use of. Ostracism was banishment without other penalty 
and without disgrace. Whenever a name was proposed for ostracism, six 
thousand votes cast in favor of the measure required the person named to leave 
Athens for ten years. It was a device (showing the small scale of Greek pol 
itics), by which the power of a single man to overthrow the state and unduly 
control it was to be restrained. It was applied against men of unquestioned 
patriotism when their policy was antagonistic to the will of six thousand citi- 
zens. It was also a device to forestall the re-establishment of a " Tyranny." 

The Spartans viewed with disfavor the democratic tendencies of the Athe- 
nians, as tending to sap the conservative spirit and traditional institutions of 
Greece. The spread of democratic tendencies would endanger Spartan ascen- 
dency in Greek politics, and threaten their own power in Laconia. Unsuccess- 
ful in overt attempts to cripple Athenian democracy, they constantly main- 
tained relations with the reactionary party in Athens. Thus Athens and 
Sparta, as the heads of democratic and aristocratic tendencies in Greece, stood 
to each otlier in a permanently hostile attitude. The Athenians disliked the 
narrowness and lack of refinement in the Spartan .; the Spartans disliked the 
levity and fickleness of a people constantly engaged in tinkering their constitu- 
tion and advocating liberties which the Spartans could not themselves bestow 



44 



GREECE 



without self-destruction. Behind this opposition of jwlicy was a difference of 
iLindamental character — that of the Doric and the Ionic Greek — the contest 
between an old land-holding and a new mercantile spirit, between the spirit of 
Doric solidity and conservative indifference to luxuries and the Ionic taste for 
beauty and artistic refinements. For centuries the Doric spirit had dominated 
and controlled the Ionic — the latter was now to take its turn. At this moment, 
B. c. 500, the outbreak of the Persian Wars apparently reconciled and broke 
down these oppositions of policy and taste in a common resistance to the 
foreign foe. 

THE WARS WITH PERSIA— IONIC REVOLT, 500 B.C. 



The Lydian Empire. — Between the Greek cities which lined 
the coast of Asia Minor and the river Halys, stretched, in earlier 
antiquit}' than the time we have reached, the Empire of Ljdia. 

This empire (capital Sardes) grew out 
of the smaller province of the same 
name, formed by the valleys of the 
Hermus and the Cayster. (At the 
months of these rivers lie Smyrna 
and Ej^hesns.) It was a vassal state 
of Assyria after 1224 b. c, and exer- 
cised an important influence on the 
Greeks in earlier antiquity, as a chan- 
nel by which Assyrian civilization 
acted on them. But it was also a 
buffer, protecting the Asiatic Greeks 
from direct contact with the great 
powders of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. 
In the decline of Assyrian 
power, about 150 years before the 
fall of Mneveh,* Lydia became independent. The Medes attempted 
to conquer it, but made peace, 610 b. c, by a treaty which was 
observed till the overthrow of the Median Empire by Persia. The 




Greek Vasi'. 
{Combat of Greeks and Fcrdans.) 



* Name the date. 



WARS WITH PERSIA. 45 

great wealth of Lydia was gold. The fabled wealth of King Midas,* 
and the actual wealth of King Oroesns, are equally famed. 

Croesus was king of Lydia when Cyrus the Great of Persia 
began his career of conquest. Croesus had brought the Greek cities 
of the Asiatic coast into a species of dependence, but his relations 
with them were friendly. On a sudden the Lydian Empire of 
Croesus was overwhelmed by Cyrus, and the barrier between the 
crushing power of the great Asian empire and the Greeks was 
broken down. 

The Greek cities of the Asiatic coast were forced to accept 
Tyrants (of Greek blood), who obeyed the Persian satraps, and 
kept their own despotisms in existence by Persian protection. The 
liberty and power of the greatest and richest Greek colonial cities, 
surpassing in wealth those of the mother country, were at the mercy 
of Asiatics. The king of Persia could not be ignorant of the smolder- 
ing discontent and uncertain obedience of the Ionic cities. Meantime, 
Cyrus died in 529, after conquering Babylon in 538. His son 
Cambyses, 529-522, had added Phcenicia and Egypt to the empire. 

The third king of Persia, Darius, first turned attention to the 
conquest of the lower Indus valley, and then directed his energies 
to the West. Until the power of the mother country was humbled, 
the Greeks of Asia Minor could not be regarded as securely con- 
quered. Thrace and Macedonia,! which lay between the boundary 
of the Persian Empire on the Hellespont and Bosphorus, and the 
states of Greece, must be first annexed. This was the object of the 
Scythian expedition of Darius, 508 B. c. 

Darius entered Thrace with an army of 800,000 men, and 
then turned north to the Danube to secure this frontier. The 
country of the wandering and barbaric Scythians beyond the 



* The fable relates that Midas, king of Phrygia (a province of the Lydian Empire), requested 
of Dionysus (Bacchus) that all he touched might turn to gold. The favor was granted, hut 
because his food and drink were turned to gold he was starving. Midas was obliged to 
beg that the granted favor might be revoked. 

t Map, p. 28. 



46 GREECE. 

Danube was entered, in order to teach these peoples to respect the 
power of Persia and forestall predatory incursions on the new prov- 
inces. A century before, the Scythians had ravaged Western Asia, 
contributing greatly to the dissolution of the Assyrian State. This 
campaign was intended also to take vengeance for this invasion. 
Darius crossed the Danube, just above its delta, on a bridge of 
boats constructed for him by the Asiatic Greeks, who had been 
forced to join the expedition with GOO ships. 

The Athenian Miltiades, who ruled a state of his own on the 
Thracian Chersonesus (the promontory bordering the Hellespont), 
proposed to destroy the bridge during the absence of the Persian 
army in the wilds of Scythia, and by thus causing the destruction 
of Darius to secure the liberties of the Asiatic Greeks. This plan 
was crossed and defeated by the Greek satrap of Miletus, Histiaeus. 
Miltiades made his escape to Athens. 

Histiaeus was rewarded, on the safe return of Darius, by the 
governorship of Myrcinus, at the mouth of the Strymon, the extreme 
frontier of the Persians in Europe. The son-in-law of Histiaeus, 
named Aristagoras, was made governor of Miletus. There were rich 
gold mines in the vicinity of Myrcinus, and the poAver of Histiaeus 
grew rapidly. It threatened to assume a position of independence, 
which would make Myrcinus rather a barrier between the Persians 
and the European Greeks than a stepping-stone to further conquest. 
Histiaeus was therefore summoned to the Persian Court at Susa, 
and was detained there in a sort of honorable captivity. He then 
sent messao'es to his brother-in-law, Aristas^oras, to incite a revolt 
of the Ionic Greeks. 

Aristagoras himself was disposed to this step, because he had 
failed in an attack on the Island of Naxos, owing to the jealousy of 
the Persian satrap of Asia Minor. Aristagoras seized the Tyrants of 
the Greek cities who were with liis armament, delivered them up to 
the people, and proclaimed democracy among the Asiatic Greeks, 
500 B. c. He then immediately sailed over to Greece, to secure help 
against the Persians. Sparta had no ships, and had never risked so 



PERSIAN WARS 



47 



distant and doubtful an undertaking, nor did the troubles of lonians 
give her much concern. She refused assistance. The Athenians 
gave twenty ships and the Eretriaus of Euboea gave five. 

An expedition of the Ionic Greeks, with the allies thus sent 
over, marched on Sardes, took, and burned it. On their retreat to 
the coast they were defeated by the Persians. The Athenians and 
Eretrians sailed home. The revolt of the lonians continued, and 
was now utterly crushed by Persia (by B. c. 494). The next step 
was to take revenge on Athens for its defiance of the " Great King" 
and the burning of Sardes. 



PERSIAN WARS— 500-480 B. C 

The first expedition of the Persians moved by way of Thrace, 
in 492, attended by a large fleet. In rounding Mount Athos (penin- 
sula of Chalcidice) the fleet was nearly destroyed by a terrible 
storm, and the land forces, also 
much annoyed by the Thra- 
cians, turned back on account 
of this disaster. 

In 490 a second expe- 
dition of about 200,000 men, 
with 600 ships, sailed from the 
Bay of Issus, at the angle 
where the coasts of Syria and 
Asia Minor join each other, by 
way of the islands of the Archi- 
pelago, into the strait between 
Attica and Euboea. Eretria was destroyed, and its inhabitants were 
enslaved. The Persians then landed, for the march on Athens, on 
the plains of Marathon. Messengers had been dispatched from Athens 
for tlie aid of Sparta, which was promised but delayed. The Athe- 
nian army of 10,000 heavy armed infantry, with 1,000 PlatcTans, was 
posted on the heights protecting the road to Athens. They were com- 




Acropolis at Athens. (Eestoration.) 
{From the West?, 



48 GREECE. 

manded by ten generals, heading respective divisions of the army, 
and each taking turn for a day in command of the whole. 

Among these generals was Miltiades (page 46). For sev- 
eral days the armies watched each other, the Persians wishing to 
temjit the Grreeks down into the plain, where the immense superi- 
ority of the Persian numbers might easily overwhelm them, and also 
because their best forces were cavalry, which could not be used on 
broken and hilly ground. On the day which gave Miltiades the 
command, he marshaled his army at dawn for descent into the 
plain. 

While Eastern armies placed their great dependence on light 
cavalry and archers, the Greeks used the phalanx — a compact mass 
of heavy armed infantry. Each warrior was armed witli a heavy 
spear and protected by a long buckler. 

The phalanx was drawn up ten deep, thus giving their army 
something over a thousand front only. The Greek tactics depended 
on the momentum of the phalanx, with its forest of projecting 
spears, and on the discipline by which the ranks were kept solid, 
for any break of the line made its array useless. A slow and cautious 
advance was therefore generally made, in order to be sure of keeping 
the ranks of the phalanx perfect till its impact against the oppos- 
ing force. On this occasion, contrary to use, the Greek line insen- 
sibly quickened its pace as it descended the slope, the rear ranks 
pushing the front ones forward. Whether this quickened step was 
pre-arranged, or an effect of the sloping hill-side, is unknown. A 
running charge of the phalanx was unheard of, but this one did not 
break its ranks, and its momentum was irresistible. 

The Persian array was swept down like grass, and the battle 
was instantly won, over an immensely superior force, by the con- 
fusion and terror resulting. A large part of the Persian force made 
its escape to the ships, and these set sail for a direct attack on 
Athens. But the quick march of the Greek army back to the oppo- 
site coast forestalled a surprise, and the Persians did not venture a 
second landing. 



PERSIAN WARS. 49 

The battle of Marathon was not such a case of discipline conquering 
numbers that it lay in the power of the Persians, by adopting Greek tactics, or by 
perfecting their discipline, to retrieve defeat. The system of the Eastern world 
could not develop the individual training and discipline on which the Greek tactics 
depended. It was, moreover, impossible to infuse into an Eastern army the 
moral courage and patriotic enthusiasm which inspired the victors of Marathon. 
The Persian despotism was not especially odious to the peoples united by it 
(excepting to Egypt), but the contingents of various nations of which a Persian 
army was composed were not bound together by the inner cohesion of common 
nationality and of absolute devotion to a common cause. As long as the East- 
ern civilizations had lasted, the plan of depending on superior numbers and 
physical force had served its end, because among all Eastern nations the same 
system essentially prevailed. Nov.-, for the first time in history, it became 
apparent that Europe, which had so lately been dependent on the Asiatics in 
matters of civilization, had risen above and outstripped its teachers. The vic- 
tory of Marathon was a triumph of moral over physical nature, of intelligence 
over matter, of European self-government over Asiatic despotism. 

A new Persian armament against the Athenians was delayed 
by the death of Darius, b. c. 48G, but was continued by his son and 
successor, Xerxes. Xerxes marched on Greece, in b. c. 480, by way of 
Thrace and Macedonia, witli about 1,000,000 men, and attended by 
a fleet of 3,000 sail. It was against this army that 300 Spartans 
under Leonidas, witli some auxiliary contingents, successfully de- 
fended the Pass of Thermopylae for two days, until, having informa- 
tion that an army of Persians was crossing, by a treacherously 
exposed mountain defile, to the rear of the pass, they refused to save 
themselves by flight, and continued fighting till the last man had 
fallen. The Persian armies marched through Boeotia into Attica, 
and burned Athens. Her citizens had taken refuge on shipboard. 

The Athenian fleet had been constantly increased and con- 
stantly drilled, since the battle of Marathon, by the foresight of 
Themistocles (p. 65). It amounted to one half of the entire Greek 
fleet, which had altogether about 600 ships. After three naval 
battles off Euboea, in which the Persians lost heavily without being 
beaten, the Greek ships drew into the narrow sound between 



50 GREECE. 

the Island of Salamis and Athens. Here they were surrounded by 
the Persian fleet, and a battle was fought, \yhich Xerxes and his 
army watched from the shore. The superior handling of the Greek 
galleys, whose oarsmen had been carefully drilled to naval manoeu- 
vres, gave them the victory. 

Although the Persian fleet was still numerous and the land army 
undefeated, Xerxes w\^s so disheartened that he returned to Asia, 
leaving 300,000 men to efiect the conquest of Greece. 

This army "was defeated by the Greeks, under command of 
the Spartan Pausanias, at Platsea, in the following year, b. c. 479. 
On the same day, a decisive victory over the Persians in Asia Minor 
was won on the promontory of Mycale, opposite Samos. 

In their expeditions against the Greeks, the Persians depended mainly for 
their fleets on the Phoenicians. An alliance with the Phoenicians of the West 
had combined all the forces of Carthage against the Sicilian Greeks, An 
immense Carthaginian army was defeated at Himera, in Sicily, on the day of 
the battle of Salamis. 

ATHENIAN ASCENDENCY, 480-430 B.C. 

The result of the victories over the Persians was an expan- 
sion of Greek character and Greek life wdiich makes the 5th century 
B. c. the glorious age of literature and art. The Athenians had 
been the main object of attack, and had exhibited the most devo- 
tion to the cause of Greece in general. Marathon and Salamis, two 
of three greatest victories, had been won by their valor. In the 
third victory, at Plataa, they had played a most important part. 
They now became the head of an aggressive war on the Persians, 
which was concluded with success, b. c. 460. Naval armaments 
being essential in this war, and foreign to the genius of Sparta, this 
state was more in the background. 

The cities of the shores and islands of the ^gean were 
combined by the Athenian Aristides into the Confederacy of Delos, 
so called from the island of the Archipelago in which the treasury 



ATHENIAN ASCENDENCY 



51 



of tlie confederacy was first established. In place of the contribu- 
tions of men and ships supplied at first by the different states, 
contributions of money were afterwards made, with which Athens 
undertook the protection of the confederacy. 




Euins of the Parthenon. 

The treasury was soon moved to Athens, and the taxes were raised with- 
out reference to actual expenses. Finally they were regarded as a tribute to 
that city. Under the direction of the famous statesman and orator, Pericles, 
(after the death of Aristides, 468), the Athenian democracy was the arbiter, 
judge, and director of the whole confederacy. With the wealth of which 
Athens was now mistress, Pericles beautified the city with the buildings and 
statues which have made Athenian art the synonym for classic perfection. 

The sculptor Phidias was the ruling mind in these artistic creations. 
Under his direction was erected on the Acropolis the Parthenon, most famous 
of Greek temples of the Doric style, about 440 B. c. For the colossal gold and 
ivory Minerva within this temple, six hundred thousand dollars worth of gold 
was employed. The entrance gates of the Acropolis (Prophyla?a) were no less 
famous. The temple of the Erechtheium, also on the Acropolis, was built in 
the Ionic order after the Prophylgea were finished, after 430 B. c. (p. 53). The 
ruins of these buildings are still the wonder and admiration of the world, 
while the gable sculptures of the Parthenon, now in the British Museum at Lon- 
don, r nk as the most perfect works of sculpture (the Elgin Marbles). 



52 GREECE. 

In literature, the 5tli century generally boasts the most distinguished 
names (excepting Homer), or the pre-eminence of having prepared the greatness 
of those who came later. Herodotus was a Greek of Asia Minor, whose history of 
the Persian wars is interwoven with interesting accounts of the Eastern nations 
and of his own travels. He is called the " father of history." Tlmcydides was 
an Athenian who wrote the history of the Peloponnesian war, the great contest 
between Athens and Sparta (to be summarized in the next chapter). Xenophon 
wrote the account of the expedition of the 10,000 Greeks into Persia, known as 
the " Anabasis " (summarized in the next chapter). These authors show that 
combination of unaffected simplicity with supreme art which distinguishes all 
productions of the Greeks, 

In philosophy, Socrates the Athenian developed, by conversational 
analysis, without himself leaving literary works, a system elaborated by Plato 
(4tli century), also an Athenian. The dialogues of Plato touch the highest 
level of j)urely human moral philosophy. Aristotle (4Th century) was the 
father of science and of scientific method. 

The dramatic authors of Athens wrote for a stage before which the 
entire people assembled for edification and instruction as well as amusement. 
The tragedies of JEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides exhibit the religious 
ideals of the Greeks in their greatest period. The comedies of Aristophanes 
conceal, under an external cover of wit and license, the severity of a censor 
and a moralist." 

The worth of Greek literature may be valued by its later influence. 
The Latin authors and poets afterward drew their ideals and inspiration, and 
much of their matter, from Greek sources. The Italian Revival, of Letters, or 
Renaissance, in the 15th and 16th centuries A. D., from which the later modern 
learning is derived, is based on the learning of the Greek and Roman authors. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, 430-400 B. C. 

The civic constitutions of Greece were not adapted to expansion or 
foreign dominance like that of Rome. The career of democracy on which 
Athens was fully launched in the times of Pericles was not long compatible 
with a dominance over the states combined in the Confederacy of Delos. The 
fickleness of the Athenian multitr.de increased with the increasing number of 
citizens. Deliberations carried on in public concourse lost their moderation 
when th^ control of the voting body escaped the power of the orator's voice. 

* For a characterii?tic type of the Greek theatre, see illustratiou at page 90. 



PELOPOXNESI AN WAR. 



53 



The loudest lunged became the leaders of the people. The organism of the 
Greek states, having no representative system, and no Roman ideal of giving 
rights of the victors to the 
vanquished, could not ex- 
tend its control over its 
fellows without ruling 
them by force and arbi- 
trary power. 

The rule of a for- 
eign democracy proved 
more galling to the Greek 
states of the ^Egean than 
the rule of native " Ty^- 
rants." As the memory of 
the Persian wars faded 
away, they grew restive 
under the taxation for 
Athenian works of art. 

Conservative Sparta 
viewed with more and 
more distaste the ascen- 
dency and democratic in- 
fluence of Athens. A ten- 
sion between these states, dating from the time of Clisthenes (page 43), devel 
oped into a struggle in which many of the states in the Confederacy of Delos 
liecame an assistance to the Spartans, and gave them courage to enter on the 







Ruins of the Erectheium. 



The formal pretext for this strife between Athens and Sparta 
was a quarrel between Corinth and her island colony, Zacynthus 
(west of the Peloponnesus). 

The Peloponnesian war lasted nearly thirty years, from -±31 
to 404 B. c. Pericles died soon after it began. Sparta having an 
undoubted ascendeucy in the land army, and Athens having an 
undoubted ascendency in the fleet, each party raided and distressed 
the other without decisive results for some years. All the states of 
Greece, and most of the colonies as far as Sicily, took sides, accord- 
ing to their democratic or aristocratic tendencies. In each state a 



54 GREECE. 

democratic and aristocratic party struggled to control its polic}', 
and as one party or the other triumphed the state changed sides. 
The war differed from those waged from time immemorial among the 
independent states of Grreece by becoming a social struggle, in which 
parties were more than patriotism, and to which the animosities of 
rich and poor, of privileged and unprivileged, added unheard-of 
bitterness. Mercenary soldiers began to be used, a thing hitherto 
unknown in Greek warfare, and equally unusual cruelties were 
committed. The first ten years of war ended without decisive 
results. A treaty was made by which each party gave up its 
conquests. 

The Sicilian Expedition. — In 415 the Athenians, still un- 
shaken in confidence, apparently unshaken in power, were led by 
Alcibiades to an expedition against the Sicilian Syracuse, with 
intention to incorporate the Sicilian Greeks in general in the 
Athenian Empire. Alcibiades was disgraced with the fickle multi- 
tude, on a charge of sacrilege, before Syracuse was attacked, and 
was obliged to take refuge in Sparta, which he incited to war on his 
native city after the Sicilian expedition had failed. This began 
the third period of the war, in which Alcibiades at last became 
again for a time the commander of his countrymen. 

A final defeat of the Athenians at ^gos Potamos, on the 
Hellespont, placed Athens at the mercy of the Spartan general, 
Lysander. She was deprived of all her dependencies and subject 
states. Her walls were torn down, and an aristocratic jDarty was 
placed in power under Spartan protection. Although the internal 
government was soon afterwards again made democratic, the power 
acquired after the Persian wars was not regained. But Athens re- 
mained, in the world of intellect and of letters, the seat of a more 
glorious empire than the fate of arms can bestow or take away. 

Sparta had apparently triumphed, but she had conquered 
with the arms of her enemy — that is, by becoming a naval power, and 
this was to undermine the fabric of her old Doric conservatism. She 
had accepted the money and assistance of the Persians on the shore 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 55 

of Asia Minor, and thus lost the esteem of patriotic Greeks. Her 
kings had become involved in the intrigues of the East, and in the 
pursuit of criminal ambitions. The cities of tlie iEgean had been 
compelled, in general, to accept Spartan governors, and their rule 
was as odious to one party in these cities as Athenian demo- 
cratic rule had been to the other. Thus the Peloponnesian war 
marks the decline in strength of the Greek political constitu- 
tions, both Doric and Ionic. But the influence of the Greeks as 
individuals, and as representatives of European civilization, was 



The Anabasis. — Exactly at the close of the Peloponnesian war occurred 
an event which gave the Greeks a new sense of their superiority to the East. In 
405 died Ai-taxerxes I. of Persia. The succession of his son, Artaxerxes II., was 
contested by his younger brother Cyrus, son of another and more favored wife, 
and firstborn after his father had become king. On this ground, Cyrus (called 
the Minor to distinguish hira from Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian 
monarchy) laid claim to the throne. As governor of Asia Minor, Cyrus had 
assisted Sparta to her triumph in the Peloponnesian war, in order to raise, by 
her permission, an army of Greek mercenaries, with whose assistance he in- 
tended to conquer the Persian throne. 

Cyrus marched with 10,000 heavy armed Greeks from Sardes on Babylon. 
Arrived near that city, at Cunaxa, the Greek phalanx won an easy victory over 
an immense army of Persians, 401 B. c. ; but in the moment of victory Cyrus 
lost his life in a charge of cavalry. The Ten Thousand were led back by Xeno- 
phou in safety through the mountains of Armenia to the shore of the Black 
Sea, and thence home. His history of this memorable expedition is called the 
" Anabasis " (the going up, or march up, to Babylon). 

The project of Cyrus shows the respect in which the Greeks were beginning 
to be held by the older Eastern nations, and the march of the Ten Thousand 
laid bare the weakness of the Persian Empire to friend and foe. One resource 
only was left the Persians — the power of gold to excite dissensions among the 
Greek states, and thus divert their energies from turning against Persia. 



56 



GREECE 



CONTESTS OF GREEK STATES TILL THE MACEDONIAN 
ASCENDENCY, B. C. 400-350. 

Corinthian War. — War was declared by Persia 011 Sparta in 
retaliation for the assistance given Cyrus Minor. The campaigns of 





Athenian Silver Coin, 
with Head of Minerva 



Reverse, with Owl 
sacred to Minerva. 



the Spartan king Agesilans in Asia Minor were so successful that 
Persia was obliged to stir up strife in Greece. This led to the 
Corinthian war, in which Corinth, Argos, Athens, Thebes, and 
Thessaly, assisted by Persian money, combined against the Spartans. 

The result of this w^ar w^as to preserve and strengthen Spartan 
ascendency, but the Greek cities of Asia Minor were sacrificed by 
her to the Persians for this end. The peace w^as even arranged at 
the Persian Court, 387 b. c. 

Olynthian War. — The only state which refused to accept the 
peace and the supremacy of Sparta, thereby made obligatory, was 
Olynthus (on Chalcidice) and the confederacy of cities which it 
beaded. This led to war with Sparta, in which the powerful Olyn- 
thian Confederacy was crushed, 3<S3-379, and the way made easy 
for the later rise of Macedonia, hitherto held in check by this Con- 
federacy. 

A Spartan army, marching through Boeotia against Olynthus, 
was invited by the aristocratic party of Thebes to seize the citadel 
and support a Thebau oligarchy, 383. 



MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 5.^ 

Theban Ascendency—This led to the struggle of Thebes, 
378-362, headed by Epaniinondas, in which the power of Sparta' 
was broken by the battles of Leuctra, 371, and Mantinea, 362. She 
was even stripped of her centnry-long rule of Messenia, and the city 
of Megalopolis was founded in Arcadia to cripple any restoration of 
power. These remarkable victories over the hereditary masters of 
Greek land warfare were effected by the new tactics of Epaminondas 
-also pursued by Napoleon Bonaparte-the method of breaking 
the enemy's line by concentration of force on one point. To this 
end the phalanx was given the form of a wedge. Epaminondas died 
on the battlefield of Mantinea. Philip of Macedon was his pupil 
and developed his system into the famous Macedonian phalanx. 

THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY; FINALLY ESTABLISHED 

B. C. 338. 

The inhabitants of Macedonia belonged to the stock of 
which the Greek race were members, but down to the time of their 
kmg Philip had been a hardy peasantry, without refinement or 
civilization. Under this ruler the Macedonian power was extended 
over Thrace, and acquired great importance by the subjugation of 
the important Greek colonies reaching from the Bosphorus to the 
Peninsula of Chalcidice. While wealth was secured by their tributes 
and the control of their important commercial interests, the power 
of Macedonia was consoHdated by strong organism, and supported 
by the most highly perfected military system yet developed. 

The Macedonian phalanx was given a spear twentv-one feet 
m length, and its depth was increased to sixteen files. The front 
rank was protected by five projecting spears, the others were held 
up, slanting forward. Thirty-two thousand men thus arrancred 
would make a front of only two thousand men, and the momentum 
of a phalanx thus constituted was irresistible in warfare as then 
know^n. 

Above all, the Macedonian power was wielded by a shrewd and 



68 



GREECE 



politic prince against the divided councils and weakened force of the 
jarring republics of Greece. The intervention of Philip in Greek 
politics was invited by certain states against their rivals, and resulted 
in the overthrow of all. 

A period of intrigues and warfare, which began shortly after 
the death of Epaminondas, and which lasted about twenty years, 
proved that the moral forces and patriotic vigor of Greek life were 
exhausted, that the ambition of Thebes was unequal to the task 
which her victories over Sparta had tem])ted her to undertake. In 
these intrigues and quarrels Philip was first a mediator and participa- 
tor, then a gradually ascendant power. Foremost in a league against 
Phihp was Athens, headed by Demosthenes, and joined with Thebes ; 
but the defeat of Ch^eronea, in Boeotia, b. c. 338, decided the fate of 
Greece and subjected her states to the Macedonian supremacy. 



MACEDONIAN CONQUEST OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, B. C. 333. 

Amalgamation of the Greek and Eastern Civilization.— 

Philip was a partisan of Greek culture and education, and did not 

abuse his victory. The gradual decay of 
the Persian Empire offered a ncAV field 
for Greek enterprise, a new mission for 
Greek civilization. Under Macedonian 
leadership and adoption it was about 
to begin a new career — that of foreign 
triumph and diffusion. 

The project of conquering the 
East, which Philip contemplated as a 
means of uniting the energies of Greece 
in foreign enterprise, and so leading 

its states to forget their subjugation, was interrupted by his 

death, B. c. 336. The project descended to his son Alexander the 

Great. 

After queuing the revolts which the accession of a young and 




Coin with Head of Alexander. 




■niM 



CONQUEST OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, 



59 



untried prince (he was but twenty), naturally excited in an empire 
so lately brought together, Alexander entered Asia Minor with an 
army of but thirty-five thousand men. He won his first victory 
over the Persian forces in a brilliant cavalry action on the Granicus 
(Northwest Asia Minor, b. c. 334). Not till he reached the town of 
Issus, on the coast of Northern Syria, did the Persians again offer 
dangerous resistance. 

In the battle of Issus, b. c. 333, the Persian king, Darius, 
escaped with difficulty : his army was totally defeated. Alexander 




Battle of Issus. Ancient mosaic picture in Naples Museum, from Pompeii.* 

did not march on Babylon and Persepolis, but turned down the 
coast of Syria, in order, by conquering the entire coast line of the 
empire, to prevent expeditions against the Greek states, or alliances 
with them, after he should march into the interior of Asia. After 
a desperate resistance by the city of Tyre to his besieging army, 
Syria was won, and Egypt was next conquered without striking a 
blow, B. c. 332. Here the Persian despotism had alw^ays been odious 



* The horse in the foreground is being held ready for the escape of the king, but Darius is 
too much agitated by the fate of a friend, transfixed by the spear of Alexander, to care for big 
own safety at the moment here represented. 



60 GREECE. 

— the Greeks were welcomed as liberators. The site of Alexandria 
was fixed, and this still important city was then founded. 

From Egypt Alexander marched by way of Syria, on the 
countries of the Euphrates and Tigris. He met the Persian army at 
Arbe]a,B. c. 331 (beyond the site of Nineveh), and totally defeated it. 
Darius fled for his life, and was murdered by a satrap during the 
pursuit of the Greeks. 

The battle of Arbela decided the fate of Persia. Where so 
many nations were bound already by a foreign rule, the change of 
masters was at least indifferent to them if not actively desired, and 
the rule of Alexander was mild and benevolent. The march of the 
Macedonians was now continued toward the Indus, with a turn to 
the north which added the upper valleys of the Oxus and Jaxartes 
to their conquests. 

Beyond the Indus Alexander entered the country of the Pun- 
jaub (b. c. 327), and defeated the Indian prince, Porus, who opposed 
him with elephants. But on the banks of the Hyphasis the wearied 
soldiers refused to advance further. Alexander then descended the 
Indus, dispatched a fleet to return by Avay of the Persian Gulf, and 
himself led the bulk of the army back by land. The most terrible 
privations were suffered on this march. 

In Babylon, Alexander, having himself married the daughter 
of Darius, effected the marriage of ten thousand of his officers and 
soldiers with Persians, as symbol and beginning of the amalgamation 
between Greece and Asia which he proposed, and which was effected 
in the centuries following his death (b. c. 323). 



THE GREEK STATES OF THE EAST WHICH REPLACED THE 
PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

Alexander had chosen no successor and left no cliildren, except an 
infant born after his death. But the division of liis empire resulting from this 
absence of a single successor rather facilitated than impeded the expansion of 



GREEK STATES OF THE EAST. 



61 



Greek civilization, by dispersing different centres of Greek military rule and 
Greek culture. The final division of tlie Greek Eastern states among the gen- 
erals of Alexander and their successors was established by the battle of Ipsus 
in Asia Minor, oOl b. c. 

Ptolemy already held Egypt. After him are named the Greek rulers of 
Egypt till the time of Roman conquest, b. c. 30. Alexandria, the capital, be- 
came the most important centre of Greek science and learning, and the seat of 
the famed library finally destroyed by the Mohammedan Arabs, in the 7th cen- 
tury A. D. The wealth of Egypt was centred in Alexandria— a Greek city— 
but the Egyi^tians were ruled with wisdom and tolerance. A new period of 
Egyptian architecture began, which attests a prosperity unknown since B. c. 
1200. 

Seleucus and his descendants, the Seleucidse, ruled Syria, Asia Minor, and 
the countries of the Euphrates and Tigris. Antioch in Syria was a Greek city 
and capital of this empire. 

The city of Pergamus, in Asia Minor, and surrounding territory, was 
ruled by the Attalids. Pergamus was an important centre of literature and 
learning. Our word parchment is hence named. 

The farther countries of the Persian Empire next the Indus, for 
a short time ruled by the Seleucidae, were then ruled by Greek dynasties loosely 
connected with the West, and gradually faded (8d century b. c.) into the Par- 




Ruins of Persepolis. 



thian Empire, which also conquered the Euphrates- Tigris valley before B. c 
100. The province of Parthia is southeast of the Caspian. 

Macedonia was ruled by a dynasty which exercised an ascendency over 
the states of Greece without directly annexing them. The iEtolian and 



62 GREECE. 

Achaean leagues were confederations Tvliicli claimed and exercised independent 
powers. 

If the spirit of liberty had still existed, actual freedom was possible and not 
denied. But the most important centre of Greece was the recruiting ground on 
the promontory of Taenarum (Southern Peloponnesus). Greece itself was 
depopulated by the drain for mercenary service in the armies of the Greek 
Eastern States, and by the attractions of the Greek Eastern courts and luxury. 
Athens, however, continued to hold its own as a seat of philosophy and 
of learning. Corinth remained an important centre of Mediterranean com- 
merce. 

The Island of Rhodes acquired control of the corn trade between Egypt and 
the other countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, and thus rose to great wealth 
and power. The Greek cities of Sicily, of Southern Italy, of South France, of 
Africa (Cyrene), of the Black Sea, were important places in the "Alexandrine" 
time. 

All states and cities mentioned ^except those beyond the Euphrates) were 
ultimately incorporated in the Empire of Rome. (See Chronology, p. 63, for 
the dates.) 



SUMMARY OF GREEK HISTORY. 

From the origins of the Greek race, as indicated by the comparative study 
of languages, we have passed to the mythology and the ideals of Greek pagan- 
ism in general, whose origins are also studied by these analogies of speech. 
From the mythical period we pass to the colonial. The poems of Homer unite 
the two, and belong to both. 

From the colonial period we pass to the internal revolutions of the Greek 
constitutions, when this outlet of population was no longer possible, and when 
the coasts open to this enterprise had all been occupied. Two different ideals 
are incorporated, and headed, one by the aristocratic monarchy-republic of 
Doric Sparta, and one by the democratic Ionian republic of Athens. 

In the Persian wars the latter takes the lead, and afterwards develops the 
Athenian ideal of literature and art. In the Peloponnesian war Sparta regains 
the mastery by sacrificinpr its traditional conservatism. Each system in turn 
proves itself unable to solidify an external permanent empire. Greek military 
tactics are developed by Thebes which destroy the power of Sparta, and in the 
hands of a Macedonian king consolidate the energies of Greece on the mastery 
of the Eastern world. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



63 



CHRONOLOGY OF GREEK HISTORY. 



Aryan period, before b 

Doric migration, about 

Ionian (and other) settlements in Asia Minor, before and after 

(Tbe poems of Homer represent this time.) 

Institutions of the Spartan Lycurgus, after 

First Olympiad . 

Marseilles founded 

(Average dates of colonies nearer home — Italian, Sicilian, etc. — 
before this time.) 

Institutions of the Athenian Solon, about 

Tyranny of the Athenian Pisistratus, after 

His sons, Hipparchus and Hippias, after 527 ; Hippias till 

Ionic revolt 

Marathon 

Thermopylae and Salamis 

Athenian ascendency, till 

Broken during the — 

Peloponnesian war (431-404), till 

March of the Ten Thousand to Babylon (401), about 

Corinthian war results, duration seven years (394-387), central date. . . 

Olynthian war results, duration three years, central date 

Struggle of Thebes and Sparta results, duration sixteen years (378- 

362), central date 

Macedonian intervention of Philip, begins about 

Battle of Chaeronea 

Alexander the Great gains the Battle of Issus 

Greece and Macedonia Roman provinces (146). after 

Asia Minor Greek after Alexander, Roman (133) after 

Syria Greek after Alexander, Roman (63) after 

Egypt Greek after Alexander, Roman after 



1500 
1100 
1000 

850 
776 
600 



590 
560 
510 
500 
490 
480 
430 

400 
400 
390 
380 

370 
350 
338 
333 
150 
130 
60 
30 



{Approximate round numbers are generaUi/ preferred in foregoing table as 
to memorise.) 



64 



GREECE. 



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DISTINGUISHED GREEKS. 65 



TABLE OF DISTINGUISHED GREEKS, ARRANGED IN THE 
ORDER OF TIME ACCORDING TO VOCATION. 

STATESMEN AXD GENERALS. 

Iivcureus Lawgiver of Sparta. Authenticated facts of hiis life are unknown. His 

9th Century b. c. institutions, see p. 39. 

Pheidon. ^°» ^^ Argos, and last representative of absolute monarchy in Greece. 

8th Century b. c. The first to coin money in Greece, and possibly inventor of the art. Some 
ancient accounts give precedence to the Lydians, but all unite in ascribing the first coinage to 
the 8th century b. c. Before this time rings or stamped ingots of the precious metals were 
used. Pheidon's dominion reached from the Isthmus of Corinth to Cape Malea. His date 
marks the final greatness and subsequent declme of Argos. 

Solon Founder of Athenian democracy. His laws were copied by Rome. Re- 

6th Century B. c, fused the supreme power when offered ; traveled and studied in Egypt, 
whence his law against idleness, and other laws, were derived. Is said to have known the 
Lydian king, Croesus. 
Pisistratus. "Tyrant" of Athens. Rearranged and established the text of the 

6th Century b. c. Homeric poems. Laid the foundations of the Olympian Jupiter temple at 
Athens, erected by Hadrian, the Roman Emperor, seven hundred years later ; ruins still stand- 
ing. The friend and relative of Solon. Though often antagonized by the latter, he cherished 
his institutions. 

Polycrates. "Tyrant" of Samos, famed for his great possessions and his cruelty; 

6th Century b. c. ally and friend of Amasis, last king but one of Egypt ; was decoyed to the 
mainland of Asia Minor and put to death shortly before the Ionic revolt. " The Ring of Poly- 
crates," by Schiller, translated by Bulwer-Lytton, is a famous poem. 

CHsthenes. Statesman and reformer in Athens after the expulsion of 

Close of the 6th Century b. c. Hippias in 510 b. o. : probably deviser of " Ostracism." 

j^.,. . , An Athenian, but also " Tyrant" of the Thracian Chersonese. 

5th Century b.' c. Having proposed to destroy the bridge of boats over the Danube, 

Time of the Persian Wars. ^^ ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^^^ Scythian expedition of Darius, he fled to Athens 
and became the hero of Marathon. He then persuaded his countrymen to give him command 
of a fleet, but used it for private ends in an attack on the island of Paros. The attack failed, 
Miltiades was severely wounded, and on his return was prosecuted and imprisoned for deceiv- 
ing the people. He died in prison. 

-,, • t 1 Creator of the Athenian fleet by which the fortunes of the day 

5th Century b. c. of Salamis were determined. A man of immense fertility of 

Time of the Persian Wars, ^e^^urce and self-confidence. His confidence brought on him the 
charge of boasting ; his success brought on him the charge of ambition. Involved in party 
contentions, the savior of his country was made to feel the "ingratitude of republics," and 
forced to leave Athens, then driven from Greece. He obtained protection of the Persian king, 
but took poison in 449 b. c. rather than serve against his country as he was summoned to do. 



66 



GREECE 



Cimon. 
5th Century B, c. 
Middle Period. 



Aristides. 

5th Century b. c. 

Time of the Persian Wan 

and after. 

of hearing him called 
" The Just," but was recalled at the time of Sala- 
mis. He was distinguished as a general at Plata^a, 
and was a prominent commander and leading 
statesman till his death in 468. 

The son of Miltiades. Was 
a successful general and lead- 
ing man at Athens in the time 
Intervening between the greatest power of Aris- 
tides and that of Pericles, which followed. He 
brought the reputed bones of the ancient hero 
Theseus to Athens, and built the temple of The- 
seus, still standing, the most perfectly preserved 
of the Greek temples. aHustration, p. 32.) 

The most famous statesman 
of the Greeks, and as an orator 
doubtless as great as Demos- 
thenes. The undying fame of Pericles is his 
devotion to art and literature amid the cares of 
state. His democracy destroyed itself, and his 
Parthenon is immortal. 



Had opposed the plans of Themistocles for creating the Athe- 
nian fleet and was ostracized for that reason, and also because the 
Athenians were tired 



Pericles. 

5th Century b. c. 

Middle Period. 



Alcibiades. 
5th Century b. c. 
Time of the Pelo 
ponnesian War. 




Statue of Arii~tide(^. 
{From Herculaneum, Naples Museum.) 



He 



A brilliant, versatile, dar- 
ingly brave, and consummately 
gifted man. His gifts were his 
ruin. His ambition was, how- 
ever, but the climax of that Athenian self-glorifica- 
tion which trusted that the times of Pericles would last when the man himself was dead 
was the projector of the Sicilian expedition (b. c. 415), which politically ruined Athens. 
Epaminondas. Regenerator of Thebes and conqueror of Sparta. In military tactics the 
4th Century b. c. teacher of the Macedonian Philip. 

Demosthenes. Whose name is a synonym for greatness in oratory. As with most suc- 

4th Century b. c. cessful orators of all times, his speeches were carefully prepared, but 
delivered as though extempore. The Philippics of Demosthenes were delivered to induce the 
Athenians to assist the towns of Chalcidice before Philip, by conquering them, should cast 
down the last rampart which divided him from Greece. 

PhilinofMacedon. Made a great state of his native country, and brought it within the 
4th Century b. c. circle of Greek culture. He could not destroy the liberties of Greece, 
as has been said ; for the spirit of liberty was dead, and Demosthenes cotild not awake it. He 
rather solved the problem of finding a new mission abroad for Greece in decay at home. 
Alexander the Great. Conqueror of the Persian Empire. The pupil of Aristotle com- 
4th Century b. c. bined the enthusiasm of a poet with the bravery of a warrior and 

the sense of a statesman. His fame as a conqueror should not eclipse the glory of his states- 
manship. 



DISTINGUISHED GREEKS. 



67 



Homer. 
Hesiod. 

Sappho. 
Alcaeus. 



POETS, PHILOSOPHERS, AXD MEK OF SCIENCE. 

Epic poet ; Ibe greatest of all time. Wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey about 
B. c. 1000. An Ionic Greek of Asia Minor. 

Didactic poet. Works— "Theogonia." a history in verse of the origin of the 
gods and creation of the world, and " Works and Days." A Boeotian ; lived 
about B. c. 850. 

Amatory poetess of Lesbos, b. c. GOO. 

Wrote warlike and patriotic odes; native of Lesbos ; about 600 b. c. 



Anacreon. Lyric poet of Teos (Ionia) about the middle of the 6th century b. c. 



-ffisop. 



Born in Phrygia ; flourished about 600 b. c. A slave. Although undoubtedly 
the author of animal fables noted in antiquity, the fables now known as ^sop's 
are not considered liis. 



Thales. 

6th Century ] 



Philosopher. An Ionic Greek of Asia Mmor. 



Pythagroras. 

6th Century b. c. 



Pindar. 

Flourished before 
and after 500 b. c. 



.ffischylus. 

5th Century b. c. 
Early Period. 

Sophocles. 

5th Century b. c. 

Middle Period. 



Philosopher ; born at Samos ; traveled in Egypt ; settled at Crotona in 
Italy. An astronomer and geometrician of great knowledge. He taught 
that numbers are the basis of all things, the harmony (music) of the spheres, and the immor- 
tality of the soul. 

Wrote odes to the victors in the Olympian, Nemean, Isthmian, and 
Pythian games. A native of Boectia, and one of the most esteemed Greek 
poets. 

Fought as an Athenian warrior at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea. 
The first and most sublime of the Tragic Poets. Seven tragedies only pre- 
served, among them "The Persians," "Prometheus Chained." 

The ideal of finished perfection in Greek dramatic art: danced as a boy 
of eighteen in the chorus which celebrated the victory of Salamis. The 
greatest of his tragedies are the three on the fates of the House of 
(Edipus. 

_ . ., His tragedies are philosophical, moral, and didactic rather 

Euripides. ° t f i „, . 

4th Cent. b. c. Later Period, than religious or ideal. He was the favorite poet of later times, 
Born on the day of Salamis. therefore more of his pieces have been preserved than of his 
two earlier contemporaries together. " Medea " and " Alcestis " are his greatest works. 
A 'stotDhanes "^^^ ^^^^ ^^^" scourged in his comedies the demagogues and ranters 

5th Century B. c* of the Peloponnesian war. His comedy of the "Clouds " shows the old 
Closing Period. Greek standpoint of conservative objection to speculation in religion. 
Socrates, as teacher of novelties, is ridiculed in this play. 

Was, like all the leading men of his time, valiant as a warrior in the 
5th Century B. c. ranks. His inquiring mind and taste for dialectics led him to develop a 
Closing Period. system of doubt as to the traditional beliefs, and to advocate the substi- 
tution of morality for mythology. Involved in the odium which the fate of 
Athens in the Peloponnesian war brought on the radical and progressive party, he was con- 
demned to death by the reactionary government set up by Sparta when the war was over. He 
left no books ; his teachings were written down by Xenophon and Plato. 



68 GREECE. 

Plato. The father of ideal philosophy, and author of the " Dialogues,*' in 

4th Cent. B.C., 428-347. which Socrates appears as teacher. From Plato's place of teaching, in 
the groves of Acaderaos, comes our word academy. 

Isocrates. The greatest teacher of Athenian rhetoric and oratory. His con- 

4th Cent. b. c. 1st half, gtitution did not allow him to enter public life. 

Aristotle. Contemporary and teacher of Alexander the Great ; the first to estab- 

4th Cent. B.C., 384-323. iig]i the natural sciences on a sure foundation. Only in the latest times 
has human knowledge passed the limits reached by Aristotle. Born at Stagira in Chalcidice ; 
taught at Athens, whence he was banished after Alexander's death. 

Epicurus. Settled at Athens ; taught that pleasure is the sovereign good, but his doctiine, 
34:i-270 B. c. as taught by himself, conceived that pleasure could not exist without reason and 
prudence. 
Euclid. Flourished at Alexandria. " His Elements of Geometry have been trans- 

About 300 B. c. lated into most languages, and have held their ground for 2000 years as the 
basis of geometrical instruction." 
Aristarchus. Greek astronomer of Alexandria ; born at Samos. The first astronomer 

3d Century b. c. ^jjq discovered the revolution of the planetary system about the sun. 
He had also a conception of the enormously remote distances of the fixed stars. Ptolemy, an 
Alexandrine astronomer and geographer of the 2d century A. d. (Roman Imperial Period), 
abandoned the system of Aristarchus, and made the earth the centre of the solar system, per- 
haps out of reverence for the authority of Aristotle. The doctrine of Ptolemy was again 
reversed by Copernicus, 16th century a. d. 

Eratosthenes. Greek astronomer and geographer of Alexandria ; called the Surveyor 

3d Century b. c. of the World ; measured the diameter and circumference of the earth 
within a few miles of the present computation. 
Hipparchus. Greek astronomer of Alexandria ; made a catalogue of the fixed stars, 

3d Century b. c. and was the father of mathematical astronomy. He discovered the Pre- 
cession of the Equinoxes. 
Archimedes. ^f Syracuse. The most celebrated mathematician and mechanician 

3d Century b. c. among the ancients. The combination of pulleys for raising heavy weights, 
the endless screw, a sphere to represent the motions of the heavenly bodies, a musical organ 
worked by hydraulic action, were invented by him. During the defence of Syracuse, besieged 
by the Roman Marcellus, he is said to have fired the Roman fleet by burning-glasses con- 
nected with a series of reflecting mirrors. The story of the burning-glasses has been much 
doubted by moderns, but appears credible in view of the experiment of the modern savant 
Bufibn, who ignited wood at a distance of 150 feet by a combination of plane mirrors. 



HISTORIANS. 

Herodotus ^^ Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor. "Wrote the history of the Persian 

5th Century b. c. wars, interwoven with accounts of his own travels. The most simple and 

Middle Period. perhaps the most interesting of all historians ; certainly the first whose 

works have been handed down. 

Thucvdides ^^ Athens. Wrote in banishment the history of the Peloponnesian 

5th Century b. c. war, in which he had been at first a general. His work is distinguished as 

Closing Period. ^^^ ^^^ philosophical of the ancient histories. 



DISTINGUISHED GREEKS. 



69 



Xenophon. 

Before and alter 
400 B. c. 



An Athenian. Wrote the " Anabasis " of the Ten Thousand Greeks and 
'•Memorabilia" of Socrates; also continued the history of the Pelopon- 
nesian war where abandoned by Thucydides, and carried Greek history 
down to the battle of Mautinea. Xenophon lived after the Anabasis in banishment at Sparta, 
whose institutions he much admired. 

Polybius. ^ Greek hostage in Rome. Became the friend of Scipio Minor, whom he 

2d Century b. c. accompanied in the third Punic war, 146 b. c. He wrote a general history 
of Greece and Rome during, and just before, his own times. 



SCULPTORS. 

Phidias. ^^ Athens ; time of Pericles ; created the ideals of Ju piter and Minerva in 

5th Century b. c. sculpture. Under his direction were executed the gable sculptures of the 
Parthenon, the " Elgin Marbles," now in the British Museum at London. He was the greatest 
of all sculptors. His style was simple and grand. 

Praxiteles and Flourished in the 4th century b. c, Middle Period. They are the repre- 
Scopas. sentatives of the beautiful and lovely as opposed to the majestic and com- 

manding. The types of Venus, Bacchus, Cupid, and the Faun were created by them. The 
Niobe group in Florence dates from Scopas ; the " Marble Faun" of The Capitol in Rome, from 
Praxiteles. These works, however, are copies. 

Was the contemporary of Alexander, and he alone was allowed to make 
his portrait. From him dates, in copy, the immense Hercules now in the 
Naples Museum, 



Lysippus. 



SCULPTURE AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 




Temple of th ' \\ui-,its>' \u.toiy at Athene, lomc Order. 



The names of this period are 
obscured by the multitude of 
works. All the statues of the 
Italian and other European mu- 
seums, except the portraits of 
distinguished Romans, are Greek 
in subject and design, though 
generally made in the times of 
the Roman Empire. 

Especially famed, of the time 
after Alexander, are the Laocoon 
group and the Belvedere Apollo 
of the Vatican Museum. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

The simple and heavy 
Doric style was dominant 
before the Peloponnesian war 
(examples, pp. 32, 51). The 
Ionic, more graceful and ele- 
gant, was most flourishing from 



70 GREECE. 

430 to 330 B. c. (examples, pp. 53, 69.) The Corinthian order, representing the more elaborate 
tastes of the later luxury and wealth, belongs to the time after Alexander, and so passed to the 
Romans, who used it much more than the Doric or Ionic (example, p. 126). The Greek archi- 
tectural orders and ornamental forms were dominant throughout the times of the Roman Em- 
pire in all provinces but Egypt. As revived in Italy about 1500 a. d., they became the common 
property of modern times. The preference shown in modern architecture for Corinthian forms 
is thus a result of Roman and of Italian influence. 



GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON GREEK HISTORY. 

The division by lessons is made with deference to the individual teacher, but it is believed 
that few classes could lengthen these review lessons with advantage. 

Some of these questions are designedly made rather difficult. Some of them are designedly 
repeated. Exercise on them may be deferred till after a review of the entire Greek his- 
tory, if desired. A complete mastery of them will probably furnish matter for the number of 
lessons indicated. The method is again suggested of directing the pupil to write down each 
question and answer in a consecutive sentence. By this method the pupil will have a written 
summary of the period, and will be saved the confusion, in preparing the recitation, of refer- 
nng to different pages of the book whenever special points may have escaped the memory. 
This method, even if not absolutely required by the teacher, will also be found by the pupil the 
readiest way to prepare recitations on the questions. 

Example, taken from the opening questions:— 77ie most important century of Greek history 
is the 5th century b. c. It opens with the events of the Persian loars, at^d closes with the I'elopon- 
nedan war and the Expedition of the Ten Thousand, etc., etc. 



FIRST LESSOX FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 

What century is the most Important in Greek history ? 

What events open this century ? What events close it ? 

What great names in literature belong to it ? (P. 67.) 

What names distinguished in war and statesmanship belong to it? (Pp. 65, 66.) 

How long after 400 did Greek independence last ? (P. 58.) 

What war before 400 began the decline ? How was the decline apparent ? (Pp. 54, 55.) 

How did Athens become obnoxious to the Confederacy of Delos, which she founded ? (P. 53.) 

What states were embraced in the Confederacy ? (P. 50.) 

Why did the triumph of Sparta over Athens contribute to her own decay? (P. 54.) 

What state overthrew the ascendency of Spai-ta in the 4th century? 

How long after did Macedonian intervention in Greek affairs begin ? 

Date the battle of Chaeronea. Why is it important ? 

What countries were included in the Persian Empire conquered by Alexander? (P. 21.) 

What Greek states rose in the East after his campaigns ? (P. 61.) What became of them? 

SECOXD LESSOiiT FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 

When does Greek written history begin ? (P. 35.) 
What famous Doric state was founded soon after 1100 ? 
What was the time of Lycurgus ? (Chronology, p. 63.) 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

Why were Spartan institutions so rigid ? (P, 39.) 

What influence had Sparta on the Greek states after 777 b. c. ? (P. 41.) 

What had prevented discontent in the early times of the Greek states ? (P. 42.) 

Why did popular discontent become general in the 6th century? 

What were the diflereut ways of coping with this discontent ? 

Were both adopted in Athens ? To what tribe did the Athenians belong ? (P. 35.) 

How did Ionic character differ from Doric ? 

WTio was the father of Athenian democracy? (P. 42.) Who preserved his laws? 

What statesman, before 500, devised ostracism? Why was this device adopted? 

What was the general size of a Greek state ? (P. 41.) 

What were the extreme dimensions of the country ? (P. 38.) 

What provinces were unimportant within these dimensions ? 

How do Greek government and character differ from the Eastern ? (P. 38.) 

Why could not the Greek states establish permanent empires of large size ? (Pp. 52, 53.) 



THIKD LESSOK FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 

In what departments have the Greeks excelled and controlled later periods of history 
(Pp. 51, 52.) 

When did Greece begin to make its civilization cosmopolitan? (P. 58 ) 

What architectural order corresponds to the time of Alexander? (P. 71.) 

What order corresponds especially to the time of, and after, the Peloponnesian war? 

What architectural order was dominant before the Peloponnesian war? 

Name all countries in which Greek civilization was established by colonies ? (Pp. ,38, 39.) 

How early were these colonies generally diffused in foreign countries ? (P. 63.) 

In what period did their influence still continue ? (P. 62.) 

In what countries was Greek culture diffused after Alexander ? (P. 61 and map.) 

How long had the New Empire of Egypt existed in the time of Homer ? (Pp. 63, 64.) 

What nation connected the Eastern world w^ith Greece at this time ? 



FOURTH LESSO^N" FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 

In what century was the New Empire of Egypt overthrown? (P. 64.) 

What contemporary events happened in Greece in this century? (P. 63.) 

How^ long had the Assyrian Empire been overthrown at the time of the Ionic revolt? 

(Pp. 63, 64.) 

Against whom did the lonians revolt? (Pp. 45, 46, 47.) 

How long had the Persian Empire then existed ? {P. 27.) 

From what two Empires was the Persian Empire founded ? (P. 20.) 

What countries did it add besides ? Name the extent of the two preceding empires? 

How long had they lasted when united by Persia ? (Pp. 20, 64.) 

What empire preceded them ? (P. 20.) 

W^hat difference between Greek and Eastern civilization is implied in the battle of 

Marathon ? (P. 49.) Why could not the East remodel its discipline ? 

What varieties of climate are embraced in the limits of Greece? (P. 38.) 
What provinces of Greece are relatively unimportant in Greek history ? (P. 38.) 



72 GREECE. 

What states are most important ? 

What is their size as compared with the whole country ? 

What is the size of the whole country as compared with the Persian Empire? 



FIFTH LESSON" FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 

In what countries did Greek culture exist after Alexander ? {Include the colonies.) 
Who were the great authors of Greece ? Name their works ? 
Were there great authors in Egypt ? 

What was the extent of Greek astronomic science ? (P, 68.) 
What was the condition of sculpture ? Of architecture ? (P. 51.) 
What forms of art were adopted by the Romans '? (Pp. 69, 70.) 
What literature was adopted by the Romans ? (P. 52.) 
When were this art and literatm-e revived ? (Pp. 52, 71.) 
In what century of Greek history was Rome founded ? (P. 65.) 
In what century lived Lycurgus ? Solon ? Pericles ? 

What Greek state declined in the century Rome was founded? (See " Pheidon," p. 65 ) 
Who was its last great king ? What state replaced Argos as leader in Greece ? 
Why did Athens replace Sparta as leader in Greece after the Persian wars ? (P. 50.) 
When Greek independence was overthrown, how long had Egypt ceased to exist as an 
independent power ? (Compare pp. 27, 63 ; or consult Synchronism, p. 64.) 

How long had Assyria ceased to exist when Greek independence was overthrown ? 



SIXTH LESS0:N^ for REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 

How long after the Doric migration did Egypt continue an independent power? 

How long after the Doric migration did Assyria continue an independent power ? 

When was Carthage founded ? (P. 27, and Synchronism, p. 64.) 

What power established itself in Western Sicily ? (P. 39.) 

What power controlled the eastern half? (P. 39.) 

What battle was fought in Sicily at the time of the Persian wars ? (P. 50.) 

Did the rivalry between Greeks and Phoenicians in Sicily continue after Alexander? 
Ans. Yes. 

When were the Greeks in Sicily nearly expelled by Carthage ? Ans. In b. c. 275. 

What power preserved the Greeks in Sicily ? Ans. The Roman. 

What power sustained the Greeks in France (Marseilles) at this time ? Ans. The Roman. 

What power preserved Greek culture in the Western Mediterranean after b.c. 275? Ans. 
The Roman. 

What power sustained and revived the decaying Greek culture of the East in the time just 
preceding the Christian era? Ans. The Roman, 

What period of history continued and developed the influence of Greek civilization for all 
later time? Ans. The Roman Imperial Period. 

When did Greek independence end? (Synchronism, p. 65.) 

When did Roman area begui rapidly to extend? (Synchronism, p. 65.) 




2 4- 

TheTictnity 

ROME 



or Gaiils 



22 



daring tKe i»egat 
perdod-. 



The part trhich it 
ColoTV^, z* 7Z times 
CnlArgcd. on. MJap. Z3 



ROME 



TILL THE OPENING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 



EARLY NATIONS OF ITALY. 



In the middle of the 8th century B. C. , when the city of Rome was 
founded, the Assyrian Empire was at the height of power. It had still a cen- 
tury and a quarter of existence to run. Egypt did not lose its independence 




-^a^i 



View ou the Tiber. St. Peter's iu the distance, Hadriair^s tomb (Papal Ca-tle of St. Aiigelo) 

on the right. 

till two centuries and a quarter later than the middle of the 8th century. The 
Phoenicians, who for so long a time united the civilizations of these countries and 
bore them to other nations, had already, in the main, abandoned the eastern 



74 ROME. 

half of tlie Mediterranean to tlie Greeks, in order to extend tlieir power in its 
western portion. One hundred years before the foundation of Rome the city of 
Carthage had been founded by them. This city, uniting under its control the 
earlier Phoenician colonies of the African coast, extended its influence in fol- 
lowing centuries to the shores of Spain, where Gades (Cadiz) was an ancient 
Phoenician settlement, over Corsica and Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, and over 
the western portion of Sicily (while the Greeks held the rest of the island). 

The influence of PhcBnician and Greek intercourse had already 
developed powerful and civilized nations in Italy at the time of the foundation 
of Rome. These nations overshadowed in importance, for four centuries fol- 
lowing this time, the small Latin tribe settled to the south of the lower Tiber. 

"Italy" did not at this time, nor did it till the times of Csesar, b. c. 50, 
include the territory above the peninsula proper — i. e., the territory of the 
valley of the Padus. This belonged to Gaul (Cisalpine Gaul), and was inhab- 
ited by Celts allied to those in France. (The Ligurians along the shore of the 
Gulf of Genoa, and the Veneti in the district named after them Yenetia, at the 
head of the Adriatic, were remains of non- Aryan populations of small impor- 
tance for later Italian history.) 

The Apennines, which form, below the Padus valley, the backbone of 
the peninsula, send out a series of short transverse spurs to the east, cutting 
up this side of Italy into a relatively barren and rugged country. But from 
these mountains flow to the west the rivers w^atering the fertile plain of Etru- 
ria, lying between the Arno and the Tiber. The inhabitants of this country, 
the Etruscans, were a powerful and highly civilized people. The Etruscan 
antiquities of the Vatican are deeply interesting. With them, as with other 
ancient nations, the habit of placing articles of use or of value in tombs, as oflfer- 
ings to the dead or as memorials, has resulted in filling the modern museums 
with remains of great value for historic study. The language of this people is 
so far undeciphered, and probably non- Aryan. 

The rest of Italy, as far as the fringe of Greek colonies reaching around the 
southern coasts, was inhabited by the Italic portion of the Greco-Italic stock. 

The small territory of Latium reached from the mouth of the Tiber 
to the promontory of Terracina. Around the Latins were grouped (besides the 
Etruscans on the north) the Sabines, ^^quians, Hernicans, and Volscians. The 
mountain region reaching from these settlements to the Adriatic, and as far as 
Ancona on the north (i. e., to the southern limit of the Gallic population) was 
held by the t^mbrians. West and south of the tribes grouped around the 
Latins were the Samnites, who controlled the rich plain of Campania from the 
mountains of Samnium, and became the dominant nation of the South above 




EARLY NATIOXS OF ITALY, yg 

Both Samnites and Etruscans possessed a civilization based upon 
he.r earl, eo.nmerce with the Ph<.oicia„s. but now overlaid and intiaenced by 
the nsing superiority of the Greelis, ^ 

whose towns, reaching all around 
the southern coasts, gave to this 
portion of Italy the name of Magna 
Grecia. 

In matters of civilization 
the Latin tribe was dependent on 
these other nations, especially on 
the Etruscans, and was much more 

backward than they. But when . 

this Latin tribe grew to be the Etiuscau Tomb at Veil 

ruling nation of Italy, its language supplanted the other related Italic d- 
.ects and the language of the Etruscans Italy was thus wel td 
-..on nation, whose general civilization had .^ll^Z:^^::Z 
an important people, and then became their property also. """''"'"'"^ "^'^ 

The history of Rome antedating the time of the Christian 
era after whtclt ,t continues in the We.t for 500 years and in 
East over 1400 years) has three natnral divisions^the time wh " 

titne'of iT'Tf'f"' ''^'•^^f"''' "•"-«" into a donble one-the 
? "setw 1 r""* ''°' "" «»-f external expansion. 

Ihese two periods are best divided by the date 333 B. c, only ten 

lasting fifty years, resulted in the conquest of Italy. An importan 
synchronism between Greek and Roman history-is estabSedl 
memonzmg this date. " '^""''""""ea by 



76 ROME. 



PERIOD OF THE ROMAN KINGS, B. C. 750-510. 

Tradition derived the settlers of Latium from Trojans 
led by ^neas, who fled from the Greeks after the capture of Troy. 
This tradition reveals at least a sense of Latin relationship to the 
Greco-Italic stock settled in Asia Minor, and it is not impossible 
that a colony from the region of Troy may have made its way to 
Italy by sea. 

The site of Rome, fourteen miles from the mouth of the 
Tiber, was determined by the fact that here was, and still is, the 
head of river navigation, and also the point of frontier commerce and 
contact between Etruscans, Sabines, and Latins. Eome was therefore 
a frontier trading post of connection with, and also a military post 
against, the two bordering nations of the IS'orth and West. 

From 750 to 510 B. C, that is, for ^40 years, Rome was 
governed by a monarchy. The ancient records of this period were 
destroyed in the burning of Rome by the Gauls in 390 B. c, and 
150 years after this date the records since used were compiled. 
Therefore the details of the regal period are partly mythical. 

The traditions of later times name the brothers Romulus 
and Remus as founders of the seven-hilled city. (These seven hills 
are named the Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Ca?lian, ^squiline, 
Viminal, and Quirinal.) 

The right of intermarriage was begged of the neighboring Sabines 
and denied. The companions of Romulus then carried off wives for themselves 
by violence — " the Rape of the Sabines." This led to a war with the town of 
Cures. The women placed themselves between the two armies when about to 
join battle. A treaty was made by which the Sabines of Cures settled at Rome, 
forming the second tribe, the Tities, so named after their king Titus Tatius. 
From the original Roman tribe of the Ramnes an adAisory senate of 100 mem- 
bers had been named, to whom 100 of the second tribe were added. 

Numa Pompilius was the second king, and the lawgiver of 
the new community. He appointed four Vestal virgins, who were 



R M A K K I X G S . 77 

to preserve the sacred fire of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and 
of the family. Four augurs were appointed to inquire the will of the 
gods. Four priests, headed by the Pontifex Maximus, were to have 
in charge the calendar of the state and the religious observances. 

The Roman paganism sprang, like tlie Greek, from the Nature worship 
of the early Aryans, hut this assumed with the Romans a more practical and 
atilitarian — a less poetic — cast than with the Greeks. Certain spirits were 
worshiped as guardian deities of the household possessions (the Lares and 
Penates). Another spirit was revered as guardian of the landmarks of the 
farm (Terminus). Innumerable guardian deities were conceived for various 
classes of objects and for various mental abstractions — Peace, Concord, Terror, 
Fear, etc. Above these conceptions ranked others, afterwards brought into 
analogy with the Greek (which themselves became known by the Latin names), 
such as Jupiter, Mars, Juno, etc. The Romans were excessively superstitious, 
and paid great attention to the science of divination in affairs of state. 

TuUus Hostilius was third king. He made Eome the head 
of the Latin confederation of towns, thirty in number, in place of 
Alba Longa. 

This event is dated about 650 b. c, and is connected with the story of three 
Roman brothers, the Horatii, whose combat with three brothers of Alba, the 
Curiatii, was to decide the contest between the cities. One of the Horatii sur- 
vived ; the five others fell, giving the victory to Rome. At this time the 
inhabitants of Alba were transferred to Rome. The leading Alban families 
formed the third tribe, the Luceres, now added to the original Roman tribe of 
the Ramnes and the Sabine settlers, the Titles, with a corresponding addi- 
tion of another 100 members to the senate. 

These three tribes formed the body of patricians, a word meaning " born of 
a father," — that is, of a father who was citizen of the state, with full political 
rights. The Roman citizenship was thus derived from the junction of three 
ancient clanships. Besides the patricians, other settlers multiplied who were 
not given the citizenship ; some known as clients, dependents and followers of 
the patricians, or as the plebs, i. e., the multitude, meaning the unprivileged 
multitude. 

A fourth king, Ancus Martius, to whom is attributed the 
first bridge across the Tiber and tlie founding of the port of Ostia, 



78 



ROME 



was followed by the fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus. To him is 
attributed the still existing Cloaca Maxima, an immense arched 
sewer for draining the marshy ground around the Palatine Hill. 

The use of the arch was borrowed from Etruria. Tarquinius Priscus is 
said to have beeu a rich Etruscan who settled in Rome and was made guardian 
of the children of Ancus Martins, but effected his own election by the people- 
Various regal insignia, borrowed from Etruscan use, are attributed to this king 
— the golden diadem, the purple embroidered robe (toga picta), the ivory chair 
(sella curulis), and the fasces, a bundle of rods bound round an axe, the emblem 
of executive power. These were borne by lictors. 



To Servius Tullius, the sixth king, are attributed the earliest 
city walls, of which some remains are still to be seen. 

After him is named the " Servian " constitution (about 550 b. c). This was essen- 
tially a reform like that of Solon at Athens, about the same time, which extended the duties of 
military service to the plebs by making propei'ty instead of birth the condition of service. The 
people were divided into five classes, according to the value of their farms, and within these 
classes into " centuries," each " century " casting one vote in the assembly of the " centuries." 
The wealthiest class was allotted such a number of centuries that its vote outnumbered all the 
other classes added together, thus keeping the balance of power with the large property 
holders. It is not certain what political rights, beyond that of voting an aggressive war, were 
accorded the assembly of " centuries " in the royal period. 

During the republic, soon after instituted, this assembly voted at the elections of state 
officers and on the acceptance or rejection of the laws, decided peace or war, and was the 
court of final judicial appeal. 

The three patrician tribes were originally divided into ten curiae each, and the curiae 

"were again subdivided into gentcs, or fami- 
lies. Thus the assembly of the curiae was an 
assembly of patricians alone. The assem- 
bly of the centuries was one of the whole 
people, in which the heavy property owners 
had a controlling voice. But the Servian 
constitution had made a local division of 
thirty tribes for purposes of enrollment and 
census. Hence a third assembly, that of 
the "tribes," which consisted, however, of 
plebeians alone, because the patricians had 
already their own independent concourse. 
The "comitia curiata " then consisted of 
patricians, the ''comitia centuriata" of patricians and plebeians together, and the "comitia 
tributa" of plebeians. 

The " comitia centuriata " became the important public assembly. 




Cloaca Maxima (the great sewer) at Rome. 



ROMAN KINGS. 



79 



The seventh king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, was 

the last. By arbitrary actions he aUenatecl the people, who expelled 
him, B. c. 510, and organized a republic. 

Doubts are expressed by historians as to the number of kings 
and details of their reigns, owing to the uncertainty of the records 
explained, but no doubt prevails about the essential facts relating to 
government and organism in the royal period. 

Map Study.— Troy ; p. 29. Site of Rome ; see section maps of Italy during regal period. 
Seven Hills ; see section map for " Map of the Roman Empire." Cures, Alba Longa, Ostia ; 
see section maps, p. 73. 

In the section map for " Latium during the regal period " the color is extended over South- 
ern Erruria, from the presumption that the three last kings, of Etruscan origin, were rather 
conquerors than emigrants. It is more than possible that the patriotism of the later tradition 
has forgotten or passed o\er an actual Etruscan ascendency over Rome at this time. 



SYNCHRONISM OF THE ROYAL PERIOD. 



£ 0^ 9 o 

g g g g 

o ^ ® =3 

*^ +^ o o 
^^■^^ 

CO -^ CK 

■^ m 2 C 

«S =3 a =^ 

o © '^ 5 
Q,-cj a <^ 
^ti rf a, 



Romulus, about 750 b. c . 



Tullus Hostilius, about 650 
B. c 

Servius TuUius, about 550 
B. c 

Tarquinius Superbus, ex- 
pelled 510 B. c 

Roman republic follows, 
confined to Latium 



' 100 years after tlie founding of Car- 
thage, 
100 years after Lycurgus. 
250 years after Homer. 
350 years after Doric migration. 
550 years after the Phoenicians had 

readied Ireland and Britain. 
1250 years after close of Old Empire 

of Egypt. 
1250 years after known beginnings of 

Chaldaea. 
25 years before fall of Assyria and 

rise of Babylonia and Media. 
50 years before Nebuchadnezzar of 

Babylon. 
Cyrus founder of the Persian Empire 

about 550 B. c. 
Hippias expelled from Athens, 510 

B, c. 

Ionic revolt and Persian wars follow. 



80 ROME. 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, FROM 500 TO 350 B. C. 

The constitution of the republic gave the power of the kings to two 
yearly elected consuls. The shortness of term, and the check of one consul on 
the other, deprived the office of much real power. The quaestors (treasurers 
and paymasters) were only for a short time appointed by the consuls, then by 
the senate, at last by the people. In case of urgent necessity, a dictator might 
be appointed vrith absolute power for six months. 

The real power of the state was the hereditary senate — already, under 
Tarquinius Priscus, doubled by the addition to the original number of an equal 
number of plebeian families, and now again, after the expulsion of the kings, 
filled up with new plebeian blood, But intermarriage with the patricians was 
forbidden, and while the plebeians might vote, they could not be elected to 
state offices. Besides the social discontent thus caused there was also economic 
discontent. A plebeian might be rich, and often was ; but the bulk of the 
plebeians were poor, and their condition generally, at the opening of the 
republic, became rapidly worse. The burdens of military service fell on them 
unequally, as no pay was given the army. A rich man could serve and hire 
labor on his lands while absent, the poor man could not. The taxes, as always 
in history, weighed most heavily on those least able to bear them. 

Inequality was also felt in the distribution of conquered lands. These were 
mainly treated as public domain, to be rented out to the highest bidder. It 
became usual, after so renting these lands, to leave them in the hands of those 
who obtained them without collecting the dues of the state ; for the same body, 
the senate, which controlled payment of dues, distributed the lands, and was 
tempted to favor its own order. In this injustice the rich plebeian shared with 
the patrician families. Thus, while the poor grew poorer, the rich became 
richer. The laws of debt allowed the creditor to enslave, sell, or even kill his 
debtor. 

When, in 495 B. C, an unfortunate debtor, who had been a 
captain, escajDed from his prison and appeared, appealing for protec- 
tion, in the Forum, the populace demanded relief of the senate. An 
attack by the Volscians, a neighboring tribe, was announced, and 
one of the consuls promised a reduction of debts. The people, 
having taken up arms and conquered the Volscians, were then 
refused assistance. In the following year the same dece])tion was 



THE EARLY REPUBLIC. 81 

practised. The plebeians now threatened secession from the com- 
monwealth, abandoned the city, and would not return until they 
were accorded popular magistrates, called Tribunes of the People. 

These annually elected tribunes might interpose their veto 
on any project or measure considered prejudicial to the plebs, or 
block the wheels of government if their rights were denied them. 
Armed with this weapon, the plebeians began an agitation for 
social and political equality, which resulted in the acquisition of the 
right of intermarriage, and in the gradual acquisition of the privi- 
lege to serve in the various oflSces of state. This struggle lasted 
seriously for a century and a half, till about b. c. 350. It ended 
entirely by b. c. 300, with the complete triumph of the plebeians. 
The old patricians continued to form an aristocracy of birth, 
though no longer one of privilege. 

For the protection of the plebeians by written laws, a commission 
was sent to Athens about 450, which returned with the Laws of the 
Twelve Tables, so called from the tablets of brass on which they 
were engraved, and which were set up before the senate-house. 

During the early republican period, b. c. 500 to 350, Rome, 
alhed with the Hernicans, forced the Sabines, ^quians, and Vol- 
scians to recognize its ascendency, and to accept a league with the 
city on its own terms. 

How comparatively small was the Eoman territory, may be 
argued from the war with Veii, an Etruscan city only twelve miles 
beyond the Tiber, which lasted nearly a century, ending with the 
conquest of the city in 396. 

The Etruscan power was thus weakened on the south, 
when the Gauls attacked it on the north, and forced their way into 
Etruria. The Etruscans appealed to their recent enemy for help. 
The Romans sent an embassy, which took part in an attack on the 
Gauls. The latter demanded reparation. When this was refused, 
they marched on Rome, and defeated its army on the Allia, a small 
tributary of the Tiber. 

The Gauls then entered the city, burned it, slaughtered the 



82 



ROME, 



inhabitants who had not fled, and besieged the garrison in the 
Capitol for seven months, b. c. 390. The cackling of geese kept in 
the Capitol awakened a brave soldier and saved the fortress from a 
night snrprise. The Gauls finally withdrew on payment of 1,000 
pounds of gold. The slight effect of the Gallic invasion on the 
later fortunes of Eome is attributed to the fact that the Italian 
nations in general snffered about equally. 

Map Study.— Veil, the Allia ; see maps at p. T3. 



To the early days of the reptiblic belong the stories of Horatius Codes and Mucins 
Scaevola, of Coriolanus, and of Chicinnatus. 

In 507 Lars Porseua, king of the Etruscan Chisium, had attacked Rome with the whole 
force of Etruria. Tradition relates that Horatius Codes defended, single handed, the bridge 
over the Tiber, while it was being broken down behind him to prevent the passage of the 
king's army, and then saved his own life by swimming 
the Tiber in full armor. 

Mucius Scaevola, penetrating to the tent of Lars 
Porsena, slew his secretary, whom he mistook for the 
king. Being then seized by the guards, he held his hand 
in a basin of glowing coals, to prove his still undaunted 
courage, and moved Lars Porsena to retreat by the as- 
surance that a hundred young Romans had sworn to 
accomplish the deed if he should fail. 

Coriolanus was a young patrician who proposed, 
during a famine in 491, to withhold the corn bought up 
in Sicily and Etruria by the senate for the people, un- 
less they would abandon their newly granted tribunes. 
For this he was summoned by the tribunes before 
the assembly of the tribes, and condemned to death. 
Coriolanus made his escape to the Volscians, headed 
their army against his native city, and ravaged the 
farms of the plebeians. His mother came, with a band 
of matrons, when he was five miles from the gates, and 
besought him to spare Rome, He yielded to her en- 
treaties, anil sacrificed his own life to the rage of the 
Volscians. 

Cincinnatus was made dictator in 458 b. c, be- 
cause the ^quians had defeated a large Roman army. 
The embassy of the senate found him at the plow, and 

his wife was obliged to fetch his toga from the house before he could receive them. He 
rescued the endangered army, defeated the ^quians, and in sixteen days, resigning his office 
of dictator, returned quietly to his farm. 

auintus Curtius is said to have ridden into a chasm in the Forum to appease, by this 
living sacrifice, the anger of the gods, which the newly opened gulf portended. 




Roman wearing the Toga. 

{Bronze Statue from Pompeii, 

Naples Museum.) 



THE EARLY REPUBLIC. 83 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE EARLY REPUBLIC. 

Republic founded B. c. 510 

Tribunes of the People " 495 

Laws of the Twelve Tables " 451 

Taking of Veil " 396 

Burning of Rome by the Gauls " 390 

Plebs a(^mitted to the prsetorship (administration of justice), the last 

important office from which they had been excluded.. " 337 

Temple of Concord " 300 

Among- the oj0a.ces to which the plebs demanded and gradually acquired eligibility be- 
sides those of consul and dictator, were those of praetors (administrators of justice), of quaestors 
(treasurers and paymasters), and of censors, the officers who had charge of public morals, of 
the enrollment of citizens, and of nominations for vacancies in the senate. 

The aediles were officers of the market and of police, elected by the assembly of the plebs. 

Curule aediles, in charge of the public games, were created at first for the patricians, and 
then also made open to the plebs. 

Down to 450 the patricians held their ground so firmly as to constantly attempt the over- 
throw of the tribunate. After 450 the period of concession, but with constant resistance, 
began. The struggle was complicated by several causes. Not only had the tribunes power 
to block the wheels of government against the patrician party, but one tribune might block 
the action of another. Thus, in the quarrels caused by financial distress and monopoly of 
domain land, the rich plebeians sided with the patricians, and the power of one plebeian trib- 
une might be turned against another. The patricians had also their party among the plebs— 
viz., the clients, their dependents. As the patricians yielded up one office after another, they 
created new offices for themselves, by which a portion of power given the old office was taken 
away, and the new office became a new object of struggle. Thus the curule aediles, censorship, 
and praetorship were successively created and successively won from the patricians. 

The struggle was again complicated by the existence of the different assemblies, and the 
conflict between them. At first the comitia curiata, patrician assembly, had the privilege of 
passing judgment on laws made by the assembly of centuries (comitia centuriata). But the 
laws of the comitia tributa were declared binding after 450. The patricians then took part in 
this assembly, which was afterwards practically the same as the comitia centuriata, and the 
Publilian Law, 339, compelled the assembly of the patrician curiae to legalize all laws of the 
comitia centuriata and tributa. 



ORGANISM OF THE ROMAN STATE IN 350 B.C. 

From the foregoing- chapter it is plain that, in 350 b. c. (the time when the Mace- 
donian power began to interfere among the Greek states, which so shortly after lost their 
independence) the Roman power was still confined to a small portion of Italy. And this date 
is four hundred years after the foundation of Rome. On the other hand, within the 
three hundred years next following, the territory of Rome extended itself, first over Italy and 



84 



ROME 



then over all the countries bordering the Mediterranean— 2. e., over North Africa, Spain, 
France, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. 

In 350 B. C. the territory controlled by Rome was about 125 miles long by 60 broad. It 
reached from the Tiber to the Liris— from the coast to the cresi of the Apennines. The cities 

of the Latins were connected with Rome 
by a league, which gave the latter pre- 
cedence and direction, but allowed the for- 
mer many of the privileges of Roman citi- 
zens, and gave them their share of lands 
conquered from the Sabines, .^Equians, and 
Volscians. • 

The territory was made secure by 
a system of soldier colonies. Each conquest 
had been confirmed and consolidated by the 
establishment of such colonies. Allotments 
of land were systematically made on and 
near each advance of frontier to soldier 
farmers, whose interest bound them to its 
protection, On the other hand, conquered 
tribes were not ruled as slaves. According 
to the loyalty or importance of diflferent 
places, they were allowed more or less of 
Roman privileges. Among individuals of a 
single locality there was also a gradation of privilege, reaching up to full citizenship. 

The strength of the Roman rule rested on the absence of exclusiveness. The Romans 
made it a principle not to ask, after victory won, severer terms than those demanded before 
battle was given. They did not provoke the spirit of desperation. This spirit of moderation 
in victory had much to do with their success. Its policy is in interesting contrast to the arbi- 
trary and grasping attitude of the Greek states toward their fellows as they successively, after 
the Persian wars, attempted to establish ascendencies. 

The same spirit of politic compromise, mingled with tenacity, is apparent in the class dis- 
putes within the commonwealth. Above the diflferences of interest and of classes, the Roman 
character was distinguislied by most important resemblances. The organism of the family was 
of the strictest kind. The father had absolute power over the children, even power of life and 
death, such was tbe respect for the principle of authority. He was obeyed by the children 
through life. (The Greek was known by an individual name, the Roman was known by his 
family name.) Just as the individual was subordinate to the family, the family was subordi- 
nate to the state. All tendency to individual self-assertion was repressed. Only at his funeral 
was the citizen allowed to be glorified. Then the effigies of his ancestors were borne in pro- 
cession to the Forum, and the orator of the occasion rehearsed their deeds and virtues in turn, 
concluding with those of the deceased. 




Roman Coin, 4th Century, with Head of Janus.* 



* Tlie type here represented weighed one pound, was of copper, and was cast, not stamped. 
Its use illustrates the simple habits and backward civilization of Rome at this period. Janus, 
according to old traditions king of the aborigines of Rome, was originally the Sun-god of the 
Latins, and hence is represented with two faces— the rising and setting sun. Beginnings were 
sacred to him (January). Hence entrances and doors (janua) were decorated with his image. 



ORGANISM. 85 

The system of public defence was one in which the state was protected by its citizens 
without compensation. Especially in the organism of the army was the wonderful capacity 
for discipline apparent. At the time we have reached, the phalanx had been abandoned by the 
Romans. The Roman legion fought in open order, each man separated from his fellow by suf- 
ficient space to allow the use of the sword, and the spear was reduced, for most of the army, 
to a heavy javelin, of which each soldier carried two, for thrust or throw at the opening of the 
combat, after which the sword was used. 

The military array in open order was in a series of ranks, five or six in succession, 
arranged like the alternate squares of a checker-board. The front rank was composed of the 
vigorous young men, the second of the sturdy and fully grown ; in the third were the tried 
veterans, behind them the recruits, or less able soldiers. These rear ranks opened combat by 
advancing through the open spaces of the three front ranks as skirmishers. After expending 
their strength and their missUes, they retired in the same way. The arrangement of the three 
main ranks allowed each in turn to retire through the intervals of the one behind it, without dis- 
order. At the critical or decisive moment the veterans took their turn. These alone were still 
armed with the heavy spear of the phalanx. Closing their ranks, and supported by those 
behind them, they then advanced for the final struggle. For light troops and light cavalry the 
Romans relied on their allies. The legion consisted of from 4,000 to 5,000 men. 

Such was the spiilt of discipline that, during the Samnite wars of the following period, a 
young general was sentenced to death by his superior for ofiering battle in his absence, against 
orders, and gaining a victory. With difliculty could the petition of the senate and the people 
save his life. 

In hard fought battles, where defeat was imminent, there were known cases in which a 
leading officer, with certain religious ceremonies, oflered the sacrifice of his life for his country, 
and then casting himself alone into the ranks of the enemy, spread confusion and panic by the 
desperate valor of his death. Two victories of the Samnite wars were won by this devotion. 

Officers of state, without class exclusion, were elected by the concourse of the people at 
the close of the period ending about 350, and laws were made by this assembly; but the sov- 
ereign and directing body of the state, in foreign affairs, was the senate, and the internal 
struggle of the classes must not cause us to forget its importance. 

The senate was at once an executive and consulting body— executive in the sense that its 
directions and orders went into immediate effect, without control of an independent executive. 
It not only made general regulations, but gave orders in individual and special cases. Its 
members (,300) held office for life. Its numbers were kept full by nomination of the censors, 
and their selection was generally made from those who had filled a state office. 

No parallel institution has ever been known in history. The union of ministerial and de- 
bating functions in the English Parliament is a parallel to a certain degree. But whereas the 
House of Loi'ds is an assembly of birth, and the House of Commons an assembly of popular 
election, the Roman senate was neither. Neither has any state in history a parallel to the 
existence of a popular government without monarchy which continued to maintain unchanged 
an aristocracy of blood. For we remember that, although plebeians sat in the senate and 
gained admission to every office of state, the patricians still continued as an aristocracy of birth. 

To this singular union of conservative and progressive tendencies, of the spirit of compro- 
mise with the sternest discipline, above all to a conception of conquest which, so far from 
stripping the vanquished of their freedom, incorporated them in the system of the victors and 
made them members of it, the Roman state owed the triumphs of its later times. To the Greek 
belonged the genius of art and of ciilture; to the Roman, the genius of politics and of law. 



86 ROME. 

CONQUEST AND CONSOLIDATION OF ITALY, B.C. 350-270. 

The Samnite Wars. — Just ten years before the date which has 
been fixed in Greek history as the turning point of Alexander's 
conquests in the East (battle of Issus, 333), began the ^' Samnite 
wars," which, though known under this name, were no less wars with 
the Etruscans. They lasted fifty years, and ended in 290 with the 
conquest of all Etruscan and Samnite territory, together with the 
connecting eastern portions of Italy. 

The Roman territory then reached up to Cisalpine Gaul on 
the north, and down to the Greek colonies on the south. These 
last were conquered ten years later (280), and the whole of " Italy," 
as conceived before the times of Caesar, was subject to Roman power. 
The same process of consolidation, by soldier colonies, by military 
roads, by concession of political rights and Eoman citizenship in 
various grades, which had secured Latin m, was applied to Italy in 
general. 

At the opening of these wars the Samnites covered and controlled 
more territory than the Latins, Of kindred blood, they were not lacking in 
determination and warlike bravery, but they were less compactly organized, 
and there were feuds between the hardy Samnites of the mountains and their 
Grecianized and more effeminate brethren iu the rich plains of Campania. 
These feuds led to the first intervention of the Romans beyond the Liris. The 
powerful city of Capua, in its conflict with the mountain tribes, first begged 
assistance from Rome. This was refused, and the Capuans then submitted 
themselves to Rome as subjects, Rome now ordered the mountain Samnites 
to vacate the territory of Capua, which they refused. 

The first Samnite war resulted, and lasted two years (843-341). The 
Samnites were beaten in the battles of Mt. Gaurus, near Cumae, and Suessula. 
The treaty of peace secured Capua to the Romans, but surrendered another 
important town, Teanum. 

The Latin cities, not satisfied with their share of booty, demanded an 
equal share in the Roman government. This was refused, and led to the Latin 
war (340-338). Rome was saved by her soldier colonies (battles of Mt. Vesu- 
vius and Trifanum). The Latin league with Rome was dissolved, and sepa- 
rate arrangements and treaties were made with each separate Latin city, gener- 



CONQUEST OF ITALY 



87 



ally according them the Roman citizenship without suffrage, which was also 
given the Campanian cities. The city of Antium had to give up her ships of 
war, and their prows (rostra) were placed in the Roman Forum, whence the 
word rostrun!. 

The expansion of Roman power in Campania led to the second Sam- 
nite war (326-304), in which the Etruscans, the minor Italic tribes, and the 
Gauls combined with the Samnites. After the surprise and surrender of a 
Roman army in the Caudine Pass, the senate rejected the peace made by their 
consuls, whom they delivered up to the Samnites. The Etruscans were beaten 
on the Yadimonian Lake, and the Samnites at Longula (north of Antium), 

The conquered peoples were obliged to surrender territory for Roman 
settlers, but were admitted to a league giving them Roman privileges. 

During this war the Appian Way was built through Latium and Campania. 
But when the Romans began to build military roads, with fortresses, between 
Samnium and Etruria, the third Samnite war (298-290) began. All the Italian 
peoples joined with the Crauls against Rome. The Roman victory of Sentinum, 
in Umbria, was decisive. The settlement of Venusia with 20,000 soldier colo- 
nists (290) sealed this victory. The Samnites made peace on the old conditions. 

Roman Conquest of the Greek States of Italy.— The Luca- 
nians of South Italy had been accorded dominion over the smaller 
Greek cities, but these preferred 
the rule of Eome, to which they 
appealed. The Lucanians be- 
gan to negotiate a new war 
against Rome. The Senonian 
Gauls first rose, but were al- 
most annihilated, and the Ro- 
man colony of Sena Gallica, 
above Ancona, was founded on 
their territory. The Etruscans 
were next once more defeated, 
and became dependent on Rome Greek Temples at Psestum, on below 

under mild conditions, 283. Nape*. 

The Greek colony of Thurii, which had appealed to Rome, was 
freed from the Lucanians, 282, and most of the Greek colonies of 
the South were willingly incorporated under Roman rule. But the 




88 ROME. 

Greeks of Tarentum now took up arms, and summoned Phyrrhus, 
the king of Epirus, to their assistance (280-275). 

Phyrrhus had become king of Epirus in 306, but was expelled, 
and then passed several years at the Macedonian Greek courts of 
Syria and Egypt. He fought with distinction at the" battle of 
Ipsus, in 301, after which the final settlement of the Alexandrine 
states was made. Being one of the greatest warriors of ancient 
times, a claimant to the Macedonian throne, and intimate with the 
leading men immediately succeeding the times of Alexander, great 
interest attaches to his campaigns in Italy. They brought about 
the first contact of the Komans with the Macedonian Greeks. 

A Roman fleet often ships, dispatched for the protection of Thurii, had cast 
anchor in the harbor of Tarentum. This was in violation of a treaty, made 
twenty years before, by which Roman ships were forbidden to cruise around 
Southern Italy. A mob attacked the vessels without warning, seized several of 
them, and sold the crews into slavery. A Roman embassy, sent to demand 
satisfaction, was insulted by the populace. This led to a Roman invasion of 
the territory of Tarentum, which accordingly summoned the Macedonian, 
Phyrrhus, to the conquest of all Italy. 

Phyrrhus landed in Italy with a phalanx of 25,000 Greeks and 20 elephants. 
These last threw the Romans into disorder, and caused their defeat at Heraclea. 
But the senate refused to treat for peace, although a general revolt in Southern 
Italy ensued. In 279 Phyrrhus defeated the Romans at Asculum with such 
difficulty that he cried, " Another victory like this, and we are lost." Phyrrhus 
now crossed to Sicily, at the call of Syracuse, which he relieved from siege by 
the Carthaginians. (These were in temporary alliance with Rome.) With 
equal celerity the Greek Sicilian cities accepted, and then expelled, the gover- 
nors of Phyrrhus, who had imported the style and methods of the Eastern 
satraps. Phyrrhus once more landed in Italy at the call of Tarentum, and was 
defeated by the Romans at Beneventum (275). By the use of pitch torches the 
elephants were frightened, and threw the phalanx into disorder. Phyrrhus 
abandoned Italy, of which Rome now remained mistress. 

Map Study.— See map for Italy, p. 86, and section map for theatre of war during Samnite 
wars for the following :— River Liris, Capua, Mt. Gaurus, Suessula, Mt. Vesuvius, Trifanum. 
Antium, Caudine Pass, Vadimonian Lake, Appian Way, Sentinum, Venusia, Lucania, Sena 
Gallica, Ancona, Thurii (see Copia), Tarentum, Heraclea, Asculum, Syracuse, Beneventum. 
Epirus, see map at p. 29. 



THEPUNICWARS. 89 



CHRONOLOGY OF ROMAN CONQUEST OF ITALY BEYOND LATIUM. 

First Samnite war, b. c. 343-341 .... r" All Italy, from the Apennines bordering 

Latin war, b. c. 340-338 | the Padus valley (Cisalpine Gaul), to 

Second Samnite war, b. c. 326-304. . . ] the Greek colonies of the southern 
Third Samnite war, B. c. 298-390. .. . y coasts, becomes Roman. 

The Greek colonies of the southern 
coasts become Roman. 



War with Phyrrhus, b. c. 280-275.. . ] 



THE SAME CHRONOLOGY SIMPLIFIED. 

The territorial expansion of Rome beyond Latium began in the time 

of Alexander the Great ; central date b. c. 333 

Conquest of Central Italy effected by the year " 290 

Conquest of Southern Italy effected by the year *' 275 

According to the above dates, the Roman consolidation of Italy was effected 
in the early part of the 3d century b. c. 



CONQUEST OF THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN, 
B. C. 270-200. 

The Punic Wars. — At the moment when the events just de- 
scribed had carried the Eoman power down through the tongue of 
land which looked over from the town of Rhegium across the Straits 
of Messina to Sicily, this island had reached a critical point of 
history. 

In the general faUing off of patriotic and civic virtues which the 
Greeks experienced in the Alexandrine period, the Greek colonies 
of Sicily had gradually been yielding to Carthaginian aggressions, 
until, at the time we have reached, only the town and territory of 
Syracuse continued to hold out. The campaign of Phyrrhus in 
Sicily had made a temporary headway against the Phcenician con- 
quest, which his abandonment of the island again allowed to 
expand. 



90 



ROME 




Greek Theatre at Egesta, in Sicily. 
{Eestorationfrom the Huins.) 



Phcenician troops were always mercenaries, and the Greeks 

had used no other soldiers since Alexander. (The final failure of 

Phyrrhus in Italy was 
the failure of such a 
Greek mercenary force 
against Roman citizen 
soldiers.) Among the 
mercenaries employed 
in Sicily, both by 
Greeks and Phoeni- 
cians, were bands of 
Campanians called 
Mamertines (men of 
Mars), who just at 
this time seized on 
the town of Messana 

for their own profit. Besieged by Syracuse, they offered the town 

to the Romans in return for an alliance. 

The senate was loath to deal with such disreputable men, but 

the will of the people ordered the Roman occupation. Meantime 

another band of the Mamertines delivered up the town to Carthage. 

The Phoenician garrison was now expelled by the Roman army. 

This was the beginning of the Punic — /. e.. Phoenician wars. 

The contest about the town of Messana depended on the fact that 
its position made it the key to Sicily, and the struggle arose at this point also 
because here, and for the first time, Roman power extending one way, and Car 
thaginian power extending the other, came in contact. The bitter struggle 
between Rome and Carthage was really, however, one between two systems. 

As far as the Carthaginians had made themselves masters in the Western 
Mediterranean it was as commercial monopolists, converting into plantation 
slaves the subjugated populations, waging war with mercenary soldiers, who 
were very cruelly treated, and only caring to extort wealth for themselves. 
Their attitude made them odious, but as long as their power was unquestioned 
successful revolt was impossible. The development of a strong power hi Italy 
was a thorn in the side of Carthage, because the subjugated peoples in Africa 



THE PUNIC WARS. 



91 



and Spain were now tempted to throw off the yoke of oppression by appeal- 
ing to Rome. This produced a state of tension and caused the Punic wars, 
the contest about Messana being the spark which lit the conflagration. 

Narrative of the First Punic War.— Hiero of Syracuse made an alliance with Rome, 
which was really defending the cause of Greek civilization in Sicily as well as its own exist- 
ence. The great difficulty of the Romans in the first Punic war lay in their lack of fleets and 
marine experience. In maritime warfare the galleys w^ere used as rams, and were provided 
with beaks projecting under water. Success depended, therefore, on the expert manceu- 
vering of the galleys, so as to strike the enemy's ship in the side. The Romans not only con- 
structed ships, but invented a system of bridges furnished with hooks and worked by tackle, 
which were let down on the Phoenician vessels when they made their customary manoeuvre. 
By these bridges the Phoenician galleys were boarded. Thus the superiority of the Romans as 
land warriors was brought into play. The struggle, however, was long and desperate, as im- 
phed by the dates for the duration of the war (204-241). It was prolonged by the landing of 
a Roman army in Africa, which, at first successful, was finally defeated and almost destroyed. 
The Carthaginians gained this victory with a mercenary army of Greeks led by a Spartan, and 
by using the terrible war elephants (common in Macedonian warfare since Alexander's cam- 
paign to India). The Roman general, Regulus, was taken prisoner. After Phoenician disasters 
in Sicily, he was sent by Carthage with an embassy to ofi"er a peace, which Rome refused. 
Regulus returned to Carthage as he had promised, and was put to death. (The death of Regu- 
lus is not mentioned by Polybius, a contemporary author, and has been doubted by some in 
consequence.) 

The final Roman victory was won at sea off the ^Egatian 
Isles, Northwest Sicily. This 
led to the peace by which Rome 
gained its first province — viz., 
Sicily. Syracuse remained an 
allied Greek kingdom. 

Between the first and sec- 
ond Punic wars there were wars 
with the Gauls in North Italy, 
which gave the Romans con- 
trol of the valley of the Pad us 
by the colonies of Placentia 
(Piacenza) and Cremona (after 
222). Carthage was occupied 
with a revolt of her own mer- 
cenaries, and Rome acquired - ^- -' ~^ _ V. 

1 CI T • 1 i~< • Roman Armor fi oni Pompeu. 

also bardinia and Corsica. {Naples Museum.) 




92 ROME. 

Second Punic War. — The conquest of Sicily had made the 
overthrow of Rome by Carthage more than ever a matter of existence 
for the latter. Therefore in 237 Hamilcar Barca, the greatest 
Phoenician general of the First Punic War, crossed over into Spain 
to find and develop new resources for Carthage. His son-in-law, 
Hasdrubal, who succeeded him, made a treaty with Rome not to 
pass the Ebro. On the death of Hasdrubal, Hannibal, the son of 
Hamilcar Barca, was elected general. As a boy he had sworn to 
his father eternal hatred of the Romans, and now determined to 
attack them in Italy, first besieging Saguntum, their ally. This act 
led the Romans to declare war. Their available force, according to 
Polybius, was 700,000 foot, 70,000 horse, of which force 273,000 
men were Roman citizens. The available force of Hannibal was 
90,000 foot and 12,000 horse. 

Narrative of the Second Punic War.— In the spring of 218, the Carthaginians 
marched with 50,000 men, 9,000 horse, and many elephants, by way of Southern France and the 
Little St. Bernard Pass, over the Alps into Italy. The Gauls of the Padus valley joined them. 

The consul, P. Cornelius Scipio, was routed on the left hank of the Padus, at the river Tici- 
nus. The second consul, Tiberius Semprouius Longus, who brought Scipio a second army 
from Sicily, was routed on the Trebia, another tributary of the Padus. 

After the winter, which caused the death of the elephants, Hannibal crossed the Western 
Apennines, marched up the valley of the Arno, and destroyed the entire army of the consul 
Flaminius on Lake Trasimenus. He then moved on Southern Italy, changing by the way the 
arms and tactics of his soldiers to the Eoman. The consul, Q. Fabius Maximus (from whom is 
named the " Fabiau" policy), constantly refused battle, and moved by the heights while Han- 
nibal marched through Southern Italy by the plains. 

In 216 the consul, C. Terentius Varro, with 86,000 men, lost the battle of Cannae and 70,000 
of his army. Varro escaped, with seventy horsemen, to Venusia. The senate summoned him 
to Rome, went in procession to the gates to meet him, thanked him " for not despairing of the 
republic," then called under arms even the criminals, slaves, and imprisoned debtors. It was 
the popular party which had appointed the defeated generals ; it now yielded place to the 
patrician aristocratic leadership, and this unity saved Rome. 

Hannibal was exhausted with victories. He received no reinforcements of importance 
from Carthage, and none from Spain, where the Roman generals had beaten his brother Has- 
drubal on the Ebro, and then transferred the war to the Bsetis (Guadalquiver). Hannibal had 
made alliances with Syracuse (after the death of Hiero) and with the Macedonian king Phihp. 
The latter was driven out of Illyria and held in check by the ^tolian league, allies of the Romans. 
Syracuse, besieged two years, 214-212, by Marcellus, was then taken and plundered. (Death of 
Archimedes, p. 68.) The transportation of Greek works of art to Rome began at this time. 

Since 216 Hannibal had occupied Capua, and in 212 he took Tarentum. To relieve the 
former city from siege he marched to within five miles of Rome, but the army about Capua 



Iroin LfieWtoiie Lo the 

^1 {ten nines, 
erilarffed fr'oni Afap :'.£ 











TJtc fVesteni part of Oie 

RO^L\X DOMiNio:sr 

at (Jve clx>se of the 
Punic ft'ar-tf. 




T7ie ^^stern pcvH oftlte 

K o^LA^ Do^vmsno:? 

a C€7iiuJ'\- after tlie close 
ofihe T^tnic wars. 



THE PUNIC WARS. 93 

could not be lured away. Both cities were retaken by Rome. After 211 Hannibal was con- 
fined to Southern Italy, still waiting for the expected reinforcements. Jealousy ruined him 
at Carthage ; his dependence was on Spain. Here, after defeats of the Roman army, which 
drove it back to the Ebro in 211, the young Publius Scipio, who had saved his father's life at 
the Ticinus, was made general. In 209 he attacked Hasdrubal at Bcccula in Andalusia, gaining 
a doubtful victory, for Hasdrubal followed his brother's path into Italy, and appeared there 
with 60,000 men. Hasdrubal was opposed on the Metaurus (above Sena Gallica) by a large 
Roman army, and dispatched messengers to Hannibal. These were captured by the Romans. 
The consul, C. Claudius Nero, holding Hannibal in check near Canusium, secretly marched 
with 7,000 picked men to the North. Hasdrubal was forced to give battle, and was defeated. 
He committed suicide, and his army was destroyed, 207. 

When Hannibal received news of this defeat (his brother's head was thrown into his camp 
by the Romans to announce it) he drew back into Apulia, where he held his ground for four 
years longer, till 203. 

Meantime Scipio had defeated a new Carthaginian army in Spain, which now came generally 
into Roman power. In 205 he obtained with difficulty permission to make war in Africa. In 204 
he landed near Utica. In the next year, after some Roman successes, Hannibal was recalled to 
Africa, which he had not seen for thirty -four years. (At nineteen he went to Spain, at twenty- 
six he began the war which he had waged single-handed till he was forty-two.) 

The decisive battle was fought at Zama in 202. Scipio placed 
his ranks one behind the other, instead of in the usual alternate 
arrangement, so that the elephants might pass through without 
breaking his lines. After desperate and undetermined conflict of 
the foot, the battle was decided by the Eomau and allied African 
cavalry. 

Carthage made peace in 201 ; agreed to pay 10,000 talents 
within fifty years (about $15,000,000) ; gave up all her elephants 
and all her ships of war but ten ; and abandoned all Spanish, 
Mediterranean, and African possessions excepting the territory 
immediately subject to the town of Carthage. She also agreed to 
wage no war without consent of Rome. Thus the latter power be- 
came mistress of the Western Mediterranean. Fifty years later the 
Romans resolved on the utter destruction of their ancient enemy, 
now reduced to the rank of a rich mercantile city without political 
power. 

The Third Punic War is perhaps the only important one 
undertaken by Rome where motives of self-preservation cannot be 
directly traced. Hereditary animosity and commercial jealousy were 
the motives here. Conditions of dependence so odious were required 



94 ROME. 

of Carthage that she resisted with the fury of despair. The city 
was entirely destroyed in 140 b. c. 

The Roman general of the Third Punic War was Scipio Minor, 
so named to distinguish him from Scipio Major, or Scipio Africa- 
nus, hero of the Second Punic War. 

Map Study.— Rhegium, Messana ; p. 73. Placentia, Cremona ; p. 86. Ebro, map at p. 93. 
Saguntum ; see on a modern map of Spain Murviedro, north of Valencia. HaunibaFs route 
over the Alps, the Ticiuus. and Trebia : see map at p. 92. For other localities of his cam- 
paigns ; map at p. 86. JStolian League, p. 94. Zama is south of Carthage. 

For general result of the Panic wars, see map of the western part of the Roman dominion a 
century after their close, p. 92. 

CHRONOLOGY OF THE PUNIC WARS. 

First Punic War b. c. 264-241 

Second Punic War " 218-201 

Third Punic War " 150-146 

The First and Second Punic Wars made the essential changes in territorial 
power. Each lasted about twenty years. A space of about twenty years inter- 
vened between tbem. The dates might be thus simplified : 

First Punic War B. c. 260-240 

Second Punic War " 220-200 

Third Punic War " 150 

CHRONOLOGY OF ROMAN ADVANCE IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN. 

Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica ; after b. c. 240 

Cisalpine Gaul (North Italy) ; after " 220 

Spain and North Africa ; after " 200 

Transalpine Gaul (South France) ; after " 120 

According to these dates, the shores and islands of the Western Mediter- 
ranean were Romanized in the 3d and 2d centuries b. c. 



CONQUEST OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN, B. C. 200-30. 

War with Macedonia naturally resulted from her alliance 
with Hannibal in the Second Punic War, after this war was closed. 
By the defeat at Cynosccphalae in Thessaly (b. c. 197) the Mace- 



^^^^^ 



The E a St tn-u ka K ol' . t i jt ; 

:mediteuraxeax sea 

durint] Hir two (•"•ifiti-tr^ /jf-"P'/{^'// ////' 
hi>//i of't'fiTis/ 



3 7 




CONQUEST OF EAST MEDITERRANEAN. 95 

donian state was humbled, and agreed to wage no war without con- 
sulting Rome. The Roman general Flaminius proclaimed the 
freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmian games, and confined the 
^tolian league (p. 61), which had sided with Rome against Mace- 
donia, to its previous limits. 

Meantime Hannibal had set himself to regulate the finances 
and reform the constitution of Cartilage with such success that the 
Romans had demanded, in 195, his surrender. He fled to Antiochus 
III. of Syria (Seleucid Empire, p. 61), wiiom he urged to fight Rome. 

Antiochus was also urged into war by the discontented zEtolian 
league. He invaded Greece and was defeated (191) at Thermopylae^ 
but his decisive overthrow occurred the following year at Magnesia, 
in Asia Minor, 190. This victory practically gave the control of 
the Eastern civilized world to the power which had just conquered 
the Western Mediterranean. But Rome was satisfied to cripple the 
Seleucid Empire, and gave the greater part of Asia Minor to its ally 
Pergamus. Hannibal's surrender was a condition of the peace. He 
fled to King Prusias of Bithynia (Northern Asia Minor), and took 
poison in 183, as his surrender had been again demanded by the 
Roman ambassadors. 

A second uprising of Macedonia, allied with the Greeks in 
general, was put down by the victory of Pydna, in Macedonia, 168 ; 
after which the Macedonian power was crippled by division into 
four aristocratic republics paying tribute to Rome. 

The Greeks were no longer worthy of their freedom, nor had 
they even the comprehension of their own feebleness as opposed to 
the new power in the West, wliich they continued to tease with 
their quarrels and futile jealousy. A third Macedonian war, attended 
by a revolt of the Corinthian populace and the anti-Roman party 
in Greece, resulted in the incorporation of Greece and Macedonia as 
Roman provinces, 146 b. c. Corinth was destroyed, and its art 
treasures were taken to Rome. 

It was here that the Roman i^eneral Mummius gave orders that any soldier breakin": a 
statue through carelessness in transport would have to replace it at his own expense. This 



96 ROME. 

story reminds us of the glories of Greek art still continuing in the time of Greek decay, and of 
the newly beginning Roman culture, which did not comprehend that anything besides money 
was necessary to replace a Greek statue. 

The kingdom of Pergamus (p. 61), comprehending (since the 
victoiy of Magnesia) most of Asia Minor, was deeded to its ally 
Eome by the will of the last Attalid in 133 b. c. 

Only one power nearer than Parthia (p. 61) which conld dare 
to cope with Rome was now left, and this did not exert itself till 
88 B. c. The Pontic Empire of Mithridates, a half Greek, half 
Asiatic king, stretched around all the shores of the Black Sea on 
the East, comprehending the important Greek cities of the Crimea, 
and became the centre of opposition to Roman rule. 

Three Mithridatic wars were waged; the last was ended, 
B. c. 64, by Pompey the Great. It resulted in the incorporation of 
most remaining portions of Asia Minor and of Syria under Roman 
rule. The latter province was not at this time directly annexed, but 
was converted into vassal states under various arrangements ; so 
that in Judaea, for instance, was installed under Roman protection 
and direction the family of which King Herod was a member. 

The Greek Ptolemies of Egypt were also, by this time, prac- 
tically dependent on Roman policy and direction, which thus em- 
braced all shores bordering on the Mediterranean. 

Map Study.— Map for the Eastern Mediterranean at p. 94— Macedonia, Cynoscephalse, 
JStolian League, Magnesia, Empire of Pergamus (after 190 b. c.) Bithyuia, Pydna Pontic king- 
dom of Mithridates and Judaea; see section map. Seleucid Empire (before Magnesia and the 
Parthians) ; p. 58. Parthian Empire ; section map, p. 94. Ptolemies in Egypt ; p. 58. 

CHRONOLOGY OF ROMAN ADVANCE IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN. 

Macedonia humbled at Cynoscephalae b. c. 197 

Seleucidae, liumbled at Magnesia, surrender their possessions in Asia 

Minor to Pergamus, ally of Rome " 190 

Macedonia tributary after Pydna " 168 

Greece and Macedonia annexed " 146 

Pergamus, including most important portions of Asia Minor, inherited " 133 

Syria dependent on Rome after third Mithridatic war " 64 

Egypt is really in Roman dependence after this time. 



CONQUEST OF EAST MEDITERRANEAN. 



97 



SAME CHRONOLOGY SIMPLIFIED. 

Greece and Macedonia Romanized ; after . b. c. 150 

Asia Minor Romanized ; after " 133 

Syria Romanized ; after " 64 

Egypt a Roman province ; after " 30 

According to these dates, the shores and islands of tiie Eastern Mediter- 
ranean were Romanized in the 2d and 1st centuries B. c. 



POLITICAL HISTORY OF ROME AS AFFECTED BY 
TERRITORIAL CONQUESTS. 

Condition of Rome about 133 B. C— Some phases of Roman discipline, character, 
and policy tending to explain the territorial expansion related in the three preceding sections 
have been mentioned. It will have been noticed that the native populations of the Mediter- 
ranean countries were already under foreign 
conquerors before they came under Eoman 
rule. The West was under a foreign PhcE- 
nician despotism, and the East was under 
foreign Greek despotisms. On the whole, 
the condition of these subject populations 
was decidedly benefited by the change of 
rulers, although the development of a Ro- 
man political equality for the foreign coun- 
tries was not undertaken till the times of the 
Empire (after 30 b. c). The full develop- 
ment of Roman political equality in Italy 
was in process during the period of the for- 
eign conquests of the republic just narrated, 
and was not fully accomplished till shortly 
before the time of the Empire. 

Thus, analogous to the struggle of the 
patricians and plebeians, resulting in class 
equality among Romans about 350 b. c, was 

a second contest after that date, resulting in the class equality of all Italians before 30 b. c, and 
a third development, resulting in the national equality of all conquered nations with the con- 
querors, after 80 b. c. 

This second period now concerns us. Its ttirning point is the year 133 b. c, the time 
of the Gracchi. This year, already noted as that of the inheritance of much of Asia Minor 
from Pergamus, is also memorable for the conquest of the town of Numantia, in farther Central 
Spain, by which that country was finally and securely fixed under Roman rule. 

"With the time of the Gracchi began the Civil wars of Rome, which, lasting a century, 
terminated with the accession of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, in 31 B. c. 




m 



A Koman Aqueciuct, erected 145 b. c. 



98 ROME. 

To understand the internal troubles and disseui^ions in the Roman state after the territorial 
expansion began, we must remember what was the government of an ancient republic. In 
Italy, as in Greece, such a government was controlled, or largely influenced, by public con- 
course of the citizens, without intermediate representation as in modern states. The break- 
down of the Athenian democracy and of the civic governments of Greece in general before the 
time of Philip, was mainly a physical result of the overgrowth of the public concourse, and of 
its consequent disorders and unwieldiness. In Greece the struggle between progress and con- 
servatism, democracy and aristocracy— i. e., between the ideal of an unlimited and a limited 
concourse— was never settled. In this struggle both sides (Sparta and Athens) became ex- 
hausted, and military despotism stepped in with Philip of Macedon. 

On the other hand, in the state which w-as to become the leading state of Italy and of the 
Old World, the struggle terminated in the complete success of ihe democracy (plebeians) under 
restraint of the senate and a continued aristocracy of birth. 

But after the Samnite wars, when Roman colonies of citizen soldiers existed in all parts of 
Italy, and when the gift of full Roman citizenship with suffrage had been partially bestowed on 
the conquered Italians, a curious antagonism sprang up between the methods of an ancient 
republic and the progressive tendency to political equality. In theory, every full citizen had a vote 
in the public concourse ; in fact, the full citizens, because scattered over all parts of Italy, could 
not vote in the concourse. In the city of Rome itself, increasing population made the meetings 
of the concourse more and more disorderly and unwieldy. Increasing population meant also 
increasing poverty of a rabble open to corruption. The disordeis of the state which resulted 
in civil war terminating in the empire are, then, partly explained by the progressive tendencies 
to political equality in conflict with the method of civic government by concourse. 

A second element of chang-e was introduced after the conquest of Sicily— the provin- 
cial system. All conquered countries outside of Italy became provinces governed by a Roman 
ofiicial-a pro-consul, pr^tor, or pro-prsetor. These provinces paid tribute to Rome, and this 
tribute was partly used to support and pay the Roman legions stationed in the provinces. This 
tribute was raised by contract. A contractor, called a publican, farmed the tax— i. e., paid to 
the senate a certain sum for the privilege of raising the tax from the i)rovince. The publican 
generally raised the tax with oppression and beyond the just due. The publican and sinner are 
often mentioned together in the New Testament. The financial oppression of the provinces 
continued till overthrown by the empire, whose mission to raise the provinces to equality has 
been noted. 

The tax-farming- system resulted in the growth at Rome of a class of tax-farming 
bankers of enormous riches unjustly acquired. The fabulous luxury and corruption of the 
later days of the republic are thus explained. These wealthy men increased their riches 
by entering into manufactures of various kinds on a colossal scale by means of slaves, and 
they used their riches for political ends in the corruption of the Roman populace. They also 
corrupr:ed the senate and the courts in the lawsuits brought against them for oppression in the 
provinces. 

One form of corruption, at last, not even reprobated, was the exhibition to the populace 
of the bloody combats of trained gladiators with each other or with wild beasts. Such gladi- 
ator shows were unknown to Greece, where gymnastic training was used as a means of educa- 
tion. They were also unknown at Rome in the virtuous days of the republic, and were tirst 
introduced from Capua after the Samnite wars. 

The Plantation System.— The money of the Roman banking party, raised by provincial 
oppression and manufacturing monopoly, was also employed in the purchase of large estates. 



POLITICAL HISTORY OF ROME. 



99 



Thus the Romau 



The small agricultural farms of Italy were bought up and turned into grazing farms, where 
the immense herds of cattle were tended by slaves, or else the small farms were aggregated 
into plantations worked by chain-gangs of slaves. This system was borrowed from the Car- 
thaginian slave plantations of Africa after the Punic wars. The great slave market was on the 
island of Delos, where 10,000 slaves were once sold to Roman capitalists in a single day. 

The Roman army had been composed for centuries of farmer-citizens. To break up the 
small farms was to destroy the free farming class, now replaced by slaves, 
legions became gradually composed of 
mercenaries instead of unpaid citizens 
fighting for patriotic motives. But the 
legions of mercenaries could be turned 
against each other. The banking mo- 
nopolist party, in its scramble for the 
spoils of the provincials, split into fac- 
tions. These factions hired armies against 
each other, thus causing the civil wars. 

At the moment when these cry- 
ing- evils of the state began to be 
apparent, two brothers, Tiberius Sem- 
pronius and Caius Sempronius Gracchus, 
endeavored to reform the fast-rotting re- 
public. Their measures were intended to 
raise the farmer class by new distributions 
of domain land, or by colonies in the prov- 
inces. Tiberius Gracchus lost the favor of 

the senate by his attempt at public division of the domain lands; Caius Gracchus lost even the 
favor of the popular party by a proposal to make full citizens of all Italians, Both brothers 
lost their lives in successive tumults. 




Temple of " Virile Fortune." The only building 
in Modern Rome dating from the Rejiublic. 



TIMES OF MARIUS, SULLA, AND POMPEY. 

The growing corruption of the state became apparent in the 
Jngurthine war, 111-106 B. c. Micipsa, king of the North African 
province of Numidia, which was under Roman protection, left two 
sons and a nephew, among whom his inheritance was divided. The 
nephew, Jngurtha, having served with a Numidian contingent 
against Numaiitia, where he learned to know the corruption of the 
Romans, believed that it would be an easy matter to supplant the 
sons of Micipsa, and usurp the government of all Numidia. Suc- 
cessive Roman armies were defeated by corruption or lax discipline, 
but Jngurtha finally died in prison at Rome. 

In the Juourthine war two officers had made themselves a name 



100 



ROME. 



— Marius, a man of low origin and of the popular party, the com- 
mander who restored Roman discipline; and Sulla, his lieutenant, of 

the aristocratic party, whose 
craft and energy secured the 
person of Jugurtha and ended 
the war. 

Barbarians from North- 
eastern Europe, called Cim- 
bri and Teutons by contempo- 
rary authors, probably mixed 
Celts and Germans, meantime 
invaded Southern (Roman) 
France, 113-101. At Arausio 
(Orange) the Romans found, 
105, a second Canna3. Marius 
was summoned to restore dis- 
cipUne and success. He de- 
feated the barbarians at Aquae 
Sextiae (Aix), 102. They then 
invaded Italy. He beat them 
again at Vercellae (North 
Italy), 101, after which they disappeared. Marius became the lead- 
ing man at Rome, and head of the popular party— offending, by his 
rough manners and person, as well as by his democratic principles, 
the aristocracy. 

Since the time of Caius Gracchus successive proposals to 
make full citizens of the Italian confederates had failed, and these 
began, in 90 B. c, the " Social war," after renewed denial of political 
equality. With their demands the popular party at Rome now 
sympathized, wishing to use them as allies against the power of the 
aristocrats. The war ended, after some apparent Roman successes, 
with a law admitting the Itahans in general to the Roman citizen- 
ship, 88 B. c. 

In the same year began the first Mithridatic war, with the 




Sulla. From an ancient bust In the Torlonia 
Museum at Rome. 



TIMES OF POMPEY. 101 

news that Mithridates, king of Pontus, had caused the murder in 
Asia Minor of 80,000 Komans, and had raised a revolt of the entire 
province. Sulla was given command for this war by the senate, 
but Marius was made commander by vote of the public concourse. 
Sulla, then in camp near Capua, led his army on Eome. For the 
first time in its history the legions appeared within the city with 
their arms. A battle was fought within the walls, and the Marian 
party was defeated. Marius fled for his life, while Sulla marched 
on the East. 

In the absence of Sulla, who defeated the forces of Mithri- 
dates, 87-84 b. c, and compelled him to make satisfaction, the 
popular party had recalled Marius. A fearful massacre of the sena- 
torial and aristocratic party was carried out by his mercenaries. 
Marius died before the return of Sulla, after which Italy was wasted 
and depopulated by a civil war of the two parties. Sullu tri- 
umphed, restored the aristocratic constitution, and by his terrible 
proscriptions (sentences of outlawry, death, and confiscation) cowed 
the opposition into silence. He then resigned his powers as dic- 
tator, dying a simple citizen in 78 b. c. 

Julius Ccesar at this time Avas about twenty-four years old 
(born 102 *). Two men, afterwards famous in association with 
him, Pompey and Orassus, had been the lieutenants and partisans 
of the SuUan reaction, whereas Caesar was related by marriage to 
Marius, and belonged to the popular party, although of patrician 
birth. 

Pompey became the leading man at Eome after Sulla's death. 
His abilities as a soldier were very distinguished, but as a politician 
he lacked principles, and therefore a fixed conduct, wishing only to 
keep himself in the good graces of a dominant party. 

The gladiator Spartacus raised, in 73 b. c, a slave rebellion 
in Italy, which counted an army of 120,000 men. It was crushed 
by Pompey and Crassus. 

* Mommsen. 



102 



ROME 



Meantime, amicl other disorders of the Roman state, that of the 
pirates, whose headquarters were on Crete and the coast of Cilicia 

(Asia Minor), assumed 
gigantic proportions. 
They mastered numer- 
ous towns, and counted 
a fleet of 1,000 ships. 

In 67, Pompey 
was sent against the 
pirates with extraordi- 
nary dictatorial powers, 
and crushed them in a 
three months war. 

A second war 
with Mithridates 
had been already con- 
cluded before the death 
of Sulla, 83-81. The 
third war now began 
on account of the will 
of Nicomedes of Bi- 
thynia (Northern Asia 
Minor), who deeded his 
state to Rome. Mith- 
ridates undertook to expel the Romans from Bithynia. The war, 
lasting 74-64, was concluded with results noted on p. 96. Here 
again Pompey had been the final victor. Before his return from 
the East, took place, in 63, the conspiracy of Catiline. 

Catiline was a profligate Roman noble who espoused the pop- 
ular party in order, by raising himself to power, to repeat, on the 
other side, the proscriptions and confiscations of Sulla. Defeated as 
candidate for the consulship, he resolved to employ force. His 
plans were detected, and he fled from Rome to an army raised in 
Etruria. He was defeated and slain near Pistoria. In exposing 




Pompey. 



From an ancient bust in the Torlonia Museum 
at Rome. 



TIMES OF POMPEY. 103 

and defeating the plans of Catiline, the orator and lawyer Cicero, 
of the senatorial party, made himself famous. 

In 61, Pompey returned from the East. His commands 
against the pirates and against Mithridates had been secured by 
aflaiiations with the popular party, although he began public life as 
partisan of the aristocracy, and had not openly abandoned them. 
He now expected favor from both parties, and failed with both, 
because he belonged to neither. The senate refused to sanction his 
arrangements in the East ; the public concourse refused his soldiers 
the proposed allotment of lands. This led Pompey to a coalition 
with Caesar, who had returned, in GO, from the government of Spain, 
whither he went in Gl. A third member in this coahtion was Cras- 
sus, whose enormous wealth was a needed assistance. Caesar was 
made consul, and carried through, in 59, the laws for satisfying the 
soldiers of Pompey, and for legitimizing his arrangements in the 
East. 

At the close of Caesar's consulship he obtained, in 58, the 
governorship of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, with four legions, 
for a term of five years. 

Map Study.-See map at p. 92 for Numidia, Numantia, Aurasio, Aquae Sextiae, VerceUae. 
Pontic Empire of Mithridates ; p. 94. Cilicia. in Ada Minor ; see map for the Roman Empire. 
Bithynia ; p. 94. Pistoria ; nortti of Florence. Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul ; p. 92. 



CHRONOLOGY. 

Jugurthine War, 111-106 ; about B. c. 110 

f Julius 

Cimbric War, 113-101; about " 100 k Caesar 

born. 

( Times 

Social W^ar, 90-88 ; about " 90^ of 

( Marl us. 

f Times 

First Mithridatic War, 88-84 ; about " 85! ^^ 

Second Mithridatic War. 83-81 \ g^Qia. 



104 



ROME 



Sulla dies ; in B. c. 78 



War of the Gladiators ; Spartacus ; 73-71 ; ends 

War with the Pirates 

Third Mithridatic War, 74-64 ; ends 

Conspiracy of Catiline (Cicero) 

Caesar j^overnor of Spain ; Pompey returns from the East. 

Caesar consul 

Caesar governor of Gaul 



71 
67 
64 

68 i 

61 

59 

58 



Times 

of 

Pompey. 



CHRONOLOGY SIMPLIFIED. 

Jugurthine War b. c. 110 

' 100 
' 90 
' 80 
' 70 
60 



Cimbric War 

Social War 

Sulla dies ; about 

Gladiator's War ; about 

Pompey returns from the East and Caesar consul ; about. 



Marius. 



Sulla. 



Pompey. 



TIMES OF JULIUS C/ESAR. 

In 58 B. C. only Southern Gaul was in the actual possession of 
the Romans, but there was no natural boundary to limit the spread 
of their influence and civilization to the centre and the north. At 
this moment the Helvetians, inhabitants of Switzerland, overcrowded 
at home, were contemplating migration in mass toward the West 
into Gaul. Caesar opposed them in the pass between the Jura and 
the Lake of Geneva. They then crossed the Jura, but were beaten 
and dispersed by battles fought in the districts corresponding to 
modern Franche-Comte and modern Burgundy. 

The Sequani, Gauls of the former province, then begged Caesar 
to expel from their territory a horde of Germans whom they had 
summoned to fight against the Gauls of Burgundy, the ^dui, and 
who had then settled themselves, to the number of 120,000, on their 
lands. O^sar defeated this band, commanded by Ariovistus, in 
Southern Alsace, and forced them over the Rhine. The Gauls now 
began to dread the loss of their independence at the hands of the 
Romans. 



TIMES OF JULIUS CiESAR, 



105 



The Belgi, between Seine, Marne, and Rhine, made a league, 
which German tribes on the left Rhine bank joined. Opesar 
regarded the assembling of troops 
as conspiracy against Rome, and 
invaded their territory in 57. 
The Belgi attacked his camp, 
were defeated and then subdued 
in detail. 

In 56 Caesar subdued the 
coast tribes between the Seine 
and the Loire, and those be- 
tween the Loire and the Pyre- 
nees. 

In 55 he defeated German 
tribes who had pushed over the 
Rhine, then threw a bridge over 
this river, probably between 
Bonn and Coblenz, and made a 
campaign of eighteen days in 
Germany. In the same year 
he made a short expedition to Britain. These last campaigns were 
intended to secure the possession of Gaul itself by an exhibition of 
Roman power. 




Julius Caesar. From an ancient "bust in the 
Torlonia Museum at Rome. 



Pompey and Crassus, in 55, were consuls at Rome, and Caesar's proconsulship in Gaul 
was extended five years in addition to the first term. Crassus and Pompey were given, at the 
close of their consulship for this year, respectively the provinces of Syria and Spain, each for 
five years. 

Crassus marched beyond the Euphrates against the Parthians, and found his own destruc- 
tion, with his entire army of seven legions, in the deserts of Mesopotamia, 53. Pompey, against 
the law which forbade the proconsul to govern his province while remaining in Rome, con- 
tinued there, watching with jealousy the success of Csesar. Gladiator hands, in the interest of 
the popular and the senatorial parties, gave battle to each other in the streets of the city. The 
republican constitution was in its death agony. The elections of consuls went by default for 
two years on account of the tumults. 

Pompey had done nothing to preserve order, but being made sole consul in 52 by senatorial 
Influence, sided once more with that party. Since the times of Marius and Sulla the army had 
been the controlling power of the state. Under Sulla the aristocracy had been bolstered up by 



106 ROME. 

it. Under Pompey, military iuflueuce vacillated towards either party, till his jealousy of Caesar 
drove him to side at last with the aristocracy and the cause of reaction. 

Meantime Caesar had made new campaigns in Britain and Germany, and in Gaul had sup- 
pressed insurrections in 54, 53, and 52, especially that of Vercingetorix, chief of the Arverni 
(Auvergne). 



The whole of Gaul had thus become a Roman province 

when in 49 Pompe}' and the senatorial party were awaiting the con- 
clusion of Caesar's term, the 1st of March, to supplant him and 
work his ruin. The latter, again a candidate for the consulship, 
was required to dismiss his army before the election. He offered to 
do this if Pompey would do the same and retire to his government 
of Spain, as required by law. 

The refusal of Pompey to accept this proposal revealed his 
ambition to attain supreme power. A small river running into the 
Adriatic, between the Apennines and the plain of the Po, was the 
southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar crossed this Rubicon 
without hesitating, and marched on Eome with a single legion. (A 
legion, at this time, consisted of 6,100 men.) Pompey, with two 
legions (recalled from Caesar's command), of which he felt insecure, 
abandoned Italy, crossing into Greece. 

Caesar, master of all Italy in sixty days, then sailed for 
Spain to conquer the troops stationed there before attacking their 
general. The army in Spain snrrendered and generally took sides 
with Caesar, but the officers hastened to join Pompey. Caesar then 
returned by way of Gaul to Italy, and crossed from Brundusium 
(Brindisi) to Greece. His army was 25,000 foot and 1,000 horse; 
his rival's army was 45,000 foot and T,000 horse. 

On the battle-field of Pharsalia, in Thessaly, Caesar won a 
decisive victory, 48 b. c. Pompey sailed to Egypt, and was here 
murdered by the guardians of the young king, who was engaged in 
war with his sister Cleopatra. 

Caesar followed by way of Thrace and Asia Minor, thence sailed 
for Egypt with 4,000 men, and received the news of his rival's death 
on landing at Alexandria. He summoned Cleopatra and her brother 



TIMES OF JULIUS C^SAR. 107 

to accept his arbitration iu their dispute, and favored the cause of 
the former. On this account he was besieged by the army of the 
king for five months in Alexandria, but finally received troops from 
Asia, with which he defeated the young Ptolemy, who was drowned 
in the Nile. He then made the kingdom over to Cleopatra and her 
younger brother. 

Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, was next conquered in North- 
ern Asia Minor. The news of the victory was sent to Rome in 
three words : " I came, I saw, I conquered " — Veni, Vidi, Vici. 

Caesar returned to Italy, was made consul for five years and 
dictator for a year by the senate. A revolt of the Pompeian party 
called him to Africa. It was put down by the victory of Thapsus, 
47. Fifty thousand Pompeian soldiers fell in this battle. In 46, 
Csesar was obliged to combat the Pompeian s in Spain. The battle 
of Munda, 45, made him master of the Eoman world. 

The next year of his hfe was occupied with that reorganism of 
the Roman state by wliich he was really the founder of the Empire. 

The policy of protecting the provincials began with him, 
and was the basis of the prosperity and duration of Imperial Rome. 
But the phantom of the old repubUc had still power over the minds 
of men, and it caused the assassination of Cassar in b. c. 44. 

Motive of the Assassination.— He was accused of wishing the title and insignia of a 
king, but it is not likely that so great a man cared by what title his power was designated. 
The aristocracy killed Caesar, not because he wished to be called a king, but because he ad- 
mitted Gauls and Spaniards to the Roman senate. The provincials were his loudest mourners, 
and the Jews of Rome, whom he had protected, refused to be driven from his bier. The great 
symbolic act of his dictatorship was the reouilding of a Phoenician Carthage and a Greek Cor- 
inth, leveled in the dust by Roman monopolists a century before. His will gave the Roman 
citizenship to the inhabitants of Sicily. 

Map Study.— See modern map for Switzerland, Jura Mountains, Lake of Geneva, province 
of Franche-Comte, duchy of Burgundy, province of Alsace, the Rhine, the Seine, the Marne, 
the Loire, the Pyrenees, Bonn, Coblentz, Auvergne. See map of the Roman Empire for 
Mesopotamia and the Parthian Empire. The Rubicon enters the Adriatic between Ariminium 
and Ravenna ; map at p. 86. See map at p. 94 for Brundusium, Pharsalia. See map at p. 93 
for Thapsus, in Africa; Munda, in Spain. 



108 ROME. 



CHRONOLOGY. 

Caesar in Gaul repels the Helvetian invasion and the German horde of 

Ariovistus, B.C. 58 

Subdues the Belgi '' 57 

Subdues the Western Coast " 56 

Crosses the Rhine and invades Britain " 55 

Invades Britain again " 54 

Suppresses insurrections " 53 

Suppresses insurrections " 52 

The whole of Gaul Roman . " 51 

•' " 50 

Crosses the Rubicon " 49 

Defeats Pompey at Pharsalia " 48 

Defeats the Pompeians at Thapsus " 47 

And settles the affairs of Africa " 46 

Defeats the Pompeians at Munda " 45 

Assassinated " 44 



FROM THE DEATH OF C/ESAR TO THE ACCESSION OF 
AUGUSTUS. 

The senate ratified the acts of Caesar and pardoned his 
murderers. These, however, felt themselves insecure at Eome, and 
left the city. Marc Antony, the friend of Caesar, and his colleague 
in the consulship, was for the moment the centre of popular devo- 
tion, and strove to be his successor. This place was contested by 
Octavian, the grand-nephew of Csesar and his heir, but nineteen 
years of age. The rivalry grew into a civil war, then ended in com- 
promise, by which the provinces of the West were divided between 
the rivals and a third member of the coalition, Lepidus. 

Brutus and Cassius, heads of the conspiracy which slew 
Cgesar, were meantime raising troops in Greece, Macedonia, Asia 
Minor, and Syria. Their army was assembled near Philippi, in 
Macedonia. In two desperate battles, fought here within two 



ACCESSION OF AUGUSTUS. 109 

weeks, November, 42 b. c, Octavian and Antony triumphed. 
Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. 

A new division of the Roman -world was now made, by 
which Lepidus received Africa, Octavian the rest of the West, and 
Antony the East. In the society of Cleopatra the latter dissipated 
the treasures of his provinces, alienated confidence at Eome by as- 
signing Eastern provinces to her children, and estranged Octavian, 
whose sister was his wife, by divorcing her. Meantime Octavian, 
by politic management and successful wars, had become sole master 
of the West Eoman world, and once more the forces of East and 
West were turned against each other by Roman rivals. 

The naval battle of Actium, on the Ambracian Gulf, b. c. 31, 
begins the history of the Empire. While the struggle was still 
doubtful, Cleopatra sailed from the scene of action followed by 
Antony. Both found death by suicide in Egypt, which became a 
Roman province, B. c. 30. 

Map Study.— See map at p 94 for Philippi and Actium. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

Philippi B. c. 42 

Actium " ^1 



THE EMPIRE OF AUGUSTUS. 

Octavian assumed the name of Augustus, and became the first 
Emperor. The general of the army was called Imperator ; by this title the 
Roman rulers now became known. In this one oflBice were concentrated the 
various powers distributed, in the republic, to many oflBcials. The powers of 
consul, tribune, censor, pontifex maximus, were united in it. The senate re- 
mained an important administrative and advising body. To its charge were 
also confided the provinces where legions were not required. Under the 
especial care of the Emperor were the provinces requiring military rule or 
defence. 

The strength of the Imperial system lay partly in its open recogni- 
tion of the fact that the army had become the controlling power in the Roman 



110 



ROME. 



state, and in placing the responsibility on the person who also controlled this 

power. Above all, it owed its strength to 

the fact that it came into existence as the 

representative of the progressive and liberal 

party, and of the policy of raising pro\incials 

to Roman equality. To carry out this policy 

was the task of the later empire. In spite 

of crimes and odious personal character in 

many cases, the Emperors were generally 

faithful to this trust. 

During the reign of Augustus the 
Danube and Rhine were securely fixed 
as boundaries of the northern provinces. 
From the crook in the Danube at Regens- 
burg (Ratisbon), however, the Roman line 
afterward lay north of this river, following 
in general the line of the Main to the 
Rhine. 

Britain was acquired later, as 
were also provinces (Dacia) beyond the lower 
Danube, but the Empire did not pursue a 

policy of conquest or of territorial increase. The additions under Augustus 
were made to acquire and strengthen the necessary frontiers. 

Map Study.— See map of modern Germany for the Rhine, the Danube, Regensburg or 
Ratisbon, the Main. See map of the Roman Empire for Britain, Dacia, and other Roman 
provinces. 




Augustus. Ancient Portrait-statue 
in the Vatican, at Rome. 



TABLE OF ROMAN COUNTRIES IN REVERSE ORDER OF ACQUISITION. 

{Not including Britain and Dacia, acquired after the Christian Era.) 

Territories between the Alps and the Danube, in modern Austria and 
Bavaria ; after b, c. 



Egypt ; after 

Gaul ; after 

Syria ; after 

Asia Minor (important part); after. 

Macedonia and Greece ; after 

Africa and Spain ; after 

Sicily ; after 



30 
50 
64 
133 
146 
200 
240 



CHRONOLOGY 



111 



TABLE OF ROMAN HISTORY BY CENTURIES. 



Century. 


Civilization, i^^^^^^^^^" Abea. 


Government. 


Date. 
B. c. 


8th 




J 




Kings. 


700 


7th 


influence 
ization. 




Latitim. 


Kings. 


600 


6th 


Etruscan 
on Civil 


Servian Cou- 
etitution. 


Latiura. 


Kings. 


500 


5th 




Struggle of the Pa- 
tricians and Ple- 
beians. 


Latium. 


Republic. 


400 


4th 




Latium. 


Republic. 


300 


3d 


1 

V 

> 
o 




Italy. 


Republic. 


200 


2J 


Greek culture spreads 
West. 

Roman organism ex- 
tends to the East. 


Western Med- 
iterranean. 

Eastern Med- 
iterranean. 


Republic. 


100 


1st 


Provincials rise 
to Roman 
privileges. 


Syria. 
Gatil. 

S. Austria and 
Bavaria. 


Empire. 





11^ ROME. 

ROMAN CHRONOLOGY OF ALL PERIODS BEFORE CHRIST. 

City founded b. c. 750 

Alba Longa conquered by Tullus Hostilius ■' 650 

Constitution of Servius Tullius '• 550 

Expulsion of the kings " 510 



The Plebeians are conceded Popular Tribunes •' 495 

Laws of the Twelve Tables " 451 



Burning of Rome by the Gauls " 390 

Samnite wars begin " 343 

Plebeians attain absolute political equality " 300 



Samnite wars end ; conquest of Central Italy " 290 

War with Phyrrhus ends with the conquest of South Italy " 275 

Punic Wars begin " 263 

Second Punic War ends '• 201 



Greece and Macedonia Roman provinces " 146 

Pergamus deeded to Rome ; Gracchic troubles " 133 

Jugurthine War begins " 111 

Cimbric War ends " 101 



Social War ends " oo 

Third Mithridatic War ends " 64 

Caesar's conquest of Gaul completed " 50 

Battle of Actium " 31 



ROMAN LITERATURE 



113 




Horace. 
{From an Ancient Medal.) 



ROMAN LITERATURE AND ART. 

Boman literature was an offslioot from the Greek, modified by the prac- 
tical tendencies and pecaliar genius of the adopters. Not till after the con- 
quest of the Greek colonies of Southern Italy 
(war with Phyrrhus, b. c. 275) does Latin lit- 
erature boast the names of any authors. 

Plautus, dramatic author, flourished 
about B. c. 200. 

Terence, dramatic author, flourished 
about B. c. 1 oO. 

The comedies of these writers are more or 
less oriorinal adaptations from the Greek, espe 
cially of Menander (Athenian dramatist of the 
Alexandrine time*. 

Cato the Censor, called Cato Major, 
died B. c. 1-19. His work, " De Re Rustica," 
is an interesting commentary on the agricul- 
tural and domestic life of the Romans of the old school, fast decaying in his 
time. 

The practical and political sense of the Romans made them especially dis- 
tinguished in the field of history. 

Sallust, about 50 B. c, wa-ote the history of the Jugnrthine War and of 
Catiline's conspiracy. 

Csesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and the civil wars. 

Livy, in the times of Augustus, wrote a history of Rome in 145 books. 
Ten books covering the time down to 293, and fifteen books covering the time 
from 218 to 167, are preserved. 

Cicero, about 50 b. c, in his orations and in his philosophical works (drawn 
from Greek sources) is a perfect master of Latin expression and construction. 

Virgil, born near Mantua, flourished in the times of Augustus. He wrote 
the " Eclogues "—pastoral poems ; the *' Georgics," an agricultural poem ; and 
the "^aeid," the celebrated Latin epic relating the fortunes of ^neas after his 
escape from the siege of Troy, his visit to Queen Dido of Carthage, and settle- 
ment in Latium. His works are all more or less dependent on Greek models 
and originals. 

Horace, of Venusia, like Virgil, was a friend of Maecenas, the famous 
patron of letters and intimate of Augustus. His works consist of odes, satires, 
and epistles. 



114 



ROME 



Ovid, born at Salmo, in the Sabine country, was a friend of Horace and 
favorite of Augustus till, for unknown reasons, he was banished to the shores 
of the Black Sea (Tomi, at the mouth of the Danube). The " Metamorphoses," 
mythological in subject, are his leading work. 

Our conception of Roman civilization is derived from its literature 
and art. The generally Greek character of both in the time of the Empire is 
best understood by remembering that the first civilizing influences to which 
Rome was subjected came from the Samnites and Etruscans, who were both 
under Greek influence ; that the conquest of the Greek colonies of South Italy 
and Sicily heightened this influence, which became overpowering after the 
conquest, in the East, of Macedonia and Greece, of Grecianized Asia Minor, 

Grecianized Syria, and the important 
Greek Egyptian capital, Alexandria. 
The peculiar original force of the 
Roman was in law, in politics, and 
in organism. The Roman reorgan- 
ized the East, already Grecianized 
by Alexander, and in organizing 
the West spread over it the Greek 
influences to which he was himself 
subject. 

The Roman art has a distinct 
form of its own in portrait sculp- 
ture, which was intentionally avoid- 
ed by the idealizing Greeks. In architecture the arch and dome, borrowed 
from the Etruscans, were developed in buildings of colossal and imposing mas- 
siveness, whose ornamental forms were, however, always Greek. 



1 

m 

! 1 




i 


li«'i:il P 



The Pantheon at Rome.* 



GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ROMAN HISTORY. 

Without reference to the order of the book. (See suggestions as to use of questions 
at p. 69.) 

FIRST LESSON FOR REVIEW. 

What were the boundaries of the Roman Empire in the time of Augustus? (See map for 
the Roman Empire.) 

What countries were included in the Roman Empire in his time ? (P. 110.) 
What countries were added later? (P. 110.) 



* Built in the reign of Augustus as portion of the Baths of Agrippa, but after erection dedi- 
cated as a temple of the gods of the conquered nations. 



QUESTIO^S FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 115 

Did the Empire pursue a policy of conquest? 

What additions were made by Tiberius to the Empire in the time of Augustus ? Ana. South 

Germany. (P. 110, 2d paragraph.) 

What territory did Rome gain by conquests of Caesar ? (P. 106.) 

What, by conquests of Pompey ? (P. 96.) 

In what year closed the Third Mithridatic War? (P. 96.) 

Who was Roman general in the First Mithridatic War ? (P. 101.) 

Who was the rival general nominated in public concourse ? 

When did Marius and Sulla first become prominent ? 

What distinguished man was born in the year of the battle of Aqufe Sextise ? (P. 101.) 

What significance for Roman history has the Jugurthiue War? (P. 99.) 

Date it approximately ? (P. 104.) How did this corruption come about ? (Pp. 98, 99.) 

What was the system of government in an ancient republic ? (P. 9S.) 

Why did government by concourse fail in the Greek states ? (Pp. 53, 98.) 

What policy secured the Roman state from y)arallel disaster ? (P. 84.) 

But what influence on government by concourse had the policy of extending the Roman 

rights to conquered peoples ? (P. 98.) 

When did the number of Roman citizens begin to augment rapidly ? Ans. After the Sam- 

nite Wars ? 

SECOND LESSON FOR REVIEW. 

When did the Samnite Wars begin ? (P. 86.j 

When did they end ? 

What central date of Greek history falls within their extreme dates ? (P. 86.) 

What additions of territory did they secure ? (P. 860 

What was the extent of Roman territory before the Samnite Wars ? (P. 81.) 

What fact exhibits the small area of the Roman state in the 5th century b. c. ? (P. 81.) 

What addition of territory was next secured after the Samnite Wars ? (P. 87.) 

When was Sicily acquired? (P. 91.) 

What increase of the state came next ? 

What was the extent of Roman power about 200 b. c. ? (P. 94.) 

Give, in the order of time, d^tes of acquisition of territory in the Eastern Mediterranean? 
(P. 97.) 

What period was destined to give Roman rights to the provinces ? (P. 97.) 

Who admitted Gauls and Spaniards to the Roman senate ? (P. 107.) 

After what war were Roman rights given to all Italian freemen ? (P. 100.) 

How long before the Samnite Wars did the monarchy give way to the republic? 

What political contest began as soon as monarchy was overthrown ? (P. 81.) 

When did this contest end ? (P. 81 ) 

How does the date of beginning territorial expansion relate to the date for the end of this 
contest? (Pp. 81, 86.) 

THIRD LESSOJ^ FOR REVIEW. 

What Macedonian kings w^ere reigning in the time of the Samnite Wars ? (Pp. 57, 58.; 
How far distant is the date for the battle of Chseronea from the date for the beginning of 
the Samnite Wars ? 



116 ROME. 

Who was expelled from Athens when the last Roman king was driven from his throne in 
B.C. 510? (P. 43.) 

How long had the Roman republic existed when the Ionic revolt began ? (P. 44.) 

What Roman king first enrolled the plebeians in the service of the state ? (P. 78.) 

In what century ? 

In what century lived Solon ? (P. 42.) 

When did Alba Longa yield to Rome the precedence in Latium ? (P. 77.) 

How long was this after the time of Nebuchadnezzar ? (P. 20.) 

How long before Cyrus ? (P. 20.) 

How long after the foundation of Rome ? 

How long before this foundation ended the old empire of Egypt ? the empire of Chaldaea ? 

How long before Rome was Carthage founded :' 

How long after Rome's foundation did Carthage continue mistress of the Western Medi- 
terranean ? (P. 93.) 

What was the character of Phoenician rule ? (P. 90.) 

Why did the rise of Rome menace the existence of Carthage ? (P. 90.) 

FOURTH LESSOX FOR REVIEW. 

What civilized nations were there in Italy before Rome was founded ? (P. 75.) 

What was the character of this civilization ? 

When did the Greek colonies of South Italy become Roman ? 

After what date did the Grecianized countries of the Eastern Mediterranean become Roman ? 

At what time does a Roman literature begin to appear ? (P. 113.) 

Whence did it draw much material and inspiration ? 

What was the character of the Roman art ? (P. 114.) 

What was the peculiar genius of the Roman as opposed to that of the Greek? (Pp. 85, 114.) 

How long did Roman rule continue in the West after the Christian era ? (P. 75.) 

How long in the East ? 




Tilt win t r .y/'c^ 



PTogressive Map 
THE ROMAK ASCEM)E5fCY1 

dnmii^ ^le first CejitrayAD. 

The Homccn ISntpire is colored 




Tile capitoliae Mil anAthefora 

during die first century^ _A. D. 




^^ ya\^rti»\us 



^xplan^tixm ofBu rtunihers 
an Map 42. 



I TempieofJufJiter 

Z • ., Juno 

3 ^irrariiLm 

4- Temple oP Sitt urn 

,'! n n Contjordi \lST. ofVe^pnjiarL 

S TvHiamxirtn.' \19 Grnecastftsij 



tsAedf-f iTulii. 

IS J/frmA'amir Tlorsr 

n Tile colxiiim oFTixoau 



The arch oi'Srveras 
Tnr Sennt^, Hull 
Temple oljanvj 
Fi/lt in n bii.nlicei 
forcinn i<i,vtlt\ra- 
Tenqile ol' Irliciiy 
' ■■ Fitxteliita, 



to Julius hruilioa, 
?/ Jrdes Casioris 
n T.afMiuerra 
23 Acdes Vest II R 
'H Retj iti 
ZS Fa6i"ns giiir 



BOOK II. 

MODERN HISTORY 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE AFTER THE CHRISTIAN 
ERA, AND THE CONTINENTAL STATES OF 
WESTERN EUROPE DOWN TO THE PRESENT 
TIME. 



THE 

ROMAN EMPIRE 

FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 



THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 



The birth of our Saviour, during the reign of Augustus, in 
the Roman province of Syria, divides the ancient from the modern 
world. In the narrower use of the word " modern " it relates, how- 
ever, to the period after 1500 A. D., when the modern states of 
Europe had come to have in general the boundaries and divisions 
of the present time. The progress of the Christian faith, although 
bitterly opposed by pagan Rome, was especially rapid and general 
within the limits of the Empire, in whose boundaries were combined 
all the countries of the civilized world. The facilities of intercourse 
established by the inner peace of the Empire, and the use of Latin 
and Greek as languages of general intercourse assisted this progress. 
But the first three centuries of Christianity were a period of spiritual 
transformation marked in written history mainly by the persecu- 
tions which it provoked. Some notice of the early Fathers of the 
Church is reserved for a future section. The political history of 
the Roman state under Augustus and his successors is continued in 
the next. 

EMPERORS OF THE FIRST CENTURY. 

Augustus B.C. 37 — A. D. 14 

Tiberius a. d. 14 — " 37 

Caligula " 37— " 41 

Claudius " 41 — " 54 



120 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



Nero 

Galba, Otho, Vitellius. 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Nerva 



D. 64— A. D. 68 



68— 
69— 
79— 
81— 
96— 



69 
79 

81 
96 
98 




Augustus was a man of deep character and subtle nature, 
cruel in the attainment and humane in the exercise of jDower. " He 

studiously veiled his suprem- 
acy under the old republican 
forms, kept the people amused, 
carried on wars only to defend 
existing frontiers, promoted 
agriculture, literature, and the 
arts, and made immense im- 
provements in the city of 
Rome." His period was that 
of Livy the historian, and of 
the poets Virgil, Horace, and 
Ovid, already mentioned. 

Of his four immediate 
successors — Tiberius, Calig- 
ula, Claudius, and Nero — his- 
tory relates little that is edifying. Their united reigns reach from 
A. D. 14 to A. D. 68. The character of Claudius alone, in its appar- 
ent weakness, contrasts favorably with the cruelties of the others. 
This emperor was distinguished also by his zeal for public works. 
Tiberius is represented by the Roman historians as a sanguinary 
tyrant, but it is certain that he was well regarded by the prov- 
inces for strict and just administration. To the infamy of Nero's 
private character is added the odium attaching to his persecution 
of the Christians— the first general persecution. 

During the persecution under Nero, St. Paul was arrested and 
brought before his tribunal. His eloquence saved him from the "fury of the 



A Street iu Pompeii. 



EMPERORS OF THE FIRST CENTURY 



121 



lions," but he was sent to prison. St. Peter was still, however, at liberty, and 
wont to celebrate the divine mysteries in the house of a Christian named 
Pudens. This has been regarded as the first church in Rome. The conversion 
by St. Peter of a woman of Nero's household aroused the anger of the tyrant, 
and he was thrown into prison. Both St. Peter and St. Paul were now con- 
demned to capital punishment. St. Peter was crucified head downward and 
buried on the spot now covered by the palace of the Vatican and the church 
of St. Peter. On the same day St. Paul was beheaded a short distance from 
the site of the later Basilica, "St. Paul's outside the walls" (p. 137). The 
pontificate of St. Peter lasted thirty-three years, of which twenty-five were 
spent at Rome. The following Popes, until the beginning of the 4tli century, 
were, like him, nearly all martyrs. {Abbe Darras is the authority followed.) 

In 68, ^ero was driven from 
the throne and took his own 
life, to escape tlie conspirators 
who were pursuing liim. A 
year of confusion followed in 
which three emperors, chosen 
by the soldiers, quickly suc- 
ceeded one another — Galba, 
Otho, Vitellius. 

Vespasian, 69 — 79, also 
elected by the legions, re-estab- 
lished order. In his reign was 
erected the wonderful amphi- 
theatre, still standing, partially 
ruined, in Rome, known as the 
Colosseum. It covers five acres 
of ground and seated 80,000 
s])ectators. 

In the time of Nero the Jews 
of Palestine had revolted against the Roman rule. Vespasian had 
been the general appointed to subdue them. This task was trans- 
ferred, after his accession, to his son Titus. Jerusalem was be- 
sieged and destroyed. This destruction is commemorated by the 
6 




Titus. From an ancient bust in the Naples 
Museum. 



122 THE ROIM AN EMPIRE. 

Arch of Titus, still standing in Rome. A sculptured relief on the 
side of the arch represents the Roman soldiers bearing off the 
seven-branched candlestick taken from the Jewish temple. 

Titus succeeded his father. His reign was short, but well con- 
ducted. Its leading event was the destruction, by volcanic eruptions 
from Vesuvius, of the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The 
former town, destroyed by lava, has offered great difiiculties to ex- 
cavation. Pompeii, covered only with ashes, whose removal is still 
in progress, affords a perfect picture of the domestic life of antiquity , 
of its private dwellings, their furniture, utensils, and decorative 
wall paintings. All objects from Pompeii are kept in the museum 
of Naples. 

Domitian, brother of Titus, succeeded him. His character was 
cruel and gloomy, but the officials were noted under his strict gov- 
ernment for incorruptibility. The conquest of Britain, begun under 
Claudius, was completed in his reign. Three columns of a temple 
built by Domitian are still standing on the Roman Forum. To the 
reign of Domitian and the period following belongs the historian 
Tacitus. The naturalist Pliny belongs to the times of Vespasian 
and Titus; the philosopher Seneca to the reign of ISTero. The 
emperor was assassinated by his own wife, who headed a conspiracy 
against him. 

The Senate then elected Nerva, who reigned two years and 
adopted Trajan as his successor. Ruins of part of the Forum built 
by Nerva are still standing. 

EMPERORS OF THE SECOND CENTURY. 

Trajan a. d. 98— a. d. 117 

Hadrian " 117— " 138 

Antoninus Pius " 138—" 161 

Marcus Aurelius " 161 — " 180 

Commodus " 180— " 192 

Pertinax, Didius Julianus " 192 — " 193 

The system of adoption, begun by Nerva, gave four excellent 



EMPERORS OF THE SECOND CENTURY. 



123 



rulers to the empire — Tnijan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus 
Aurelius. Their reigns lasted together eighty-two years — the 
Golden Age of the empire. 

Trajan added to the Roman territory a province beyond the 
Danube — Dacia ; part of Southern Hungary and Roumania. The 




The Coluuin ( 1 1 lajan and iJuin- ui hi- Ba-ihca, oi Bu-inetes Excliauj^'e. 

modern Roumanians boast of their descent from the soldier colo- 
nists of this emperor. The Column of Trajan still stands in Rome 
to commemorate his Daoian victories. Trajan also made conquests 
in the Tigris-Euphrates valley (from the Parthians) of Mesopotamia 
and Babylonia. These were abandoned by Hadrian. 



124 T H E R M AN E M P I R E . 

The reign of Hadrian Avas one of constant travel and personal 
administrative care in all parts of the empire. The ruins of his for- 
tified wall in Britain, built to protect the Eoman British from the 
inroads of the barbarian Picts and Scots of the Highlands, are still 
to be seen." The gigantic tomb of Hadrian has become a Papal 
fortress — the Castle of St. Angelo (p. 75). 

Antoninus Pius enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. He was a 
ruler of mild character and great ability. 

Marcus Aurelius, 161-180, a man of philosophic taste and 
benevolent disposition, succeeded him. In his time the wars with 
German tribes beyond the Danube, in modern Bohemia and Mo- 
ravia, began to assume an alarming aspect. 

Under Commodus, the son and successor of Marcus Aurelius, 
these wars continued. Commodus was obliged to purchase a dis- 
honorable peace. He was at once cruel and incapable. 



EMPERORS OF THE THIRD CENTURY. 

Septiinius Severus a. d. 193-211 

Caracalla " 211-218 

Macrinus, Heliogabalus " 218-222 

Alexander Sevems " 222-235 

Maximin ... " 235-244 

(Rival emperors — Gordian I., Gordian 11., Pupienus, Balbinus. ) 

Pliihp •' 244-249 

Decius " 249-251 

Gallus " 251-252 

^milian " 253-253 

Valerian " 253-260 

Gallienus (associate emperor) " 254-268 

Aurelian " 270-275 

Tacitus, Probus, Cams " 275-283 

Numerian, Carinus " 283-284 

Diocletian " 284-305 

From the time of the assassination of Commodus dates an entire 
century of more or less disorder and military license. Since tlie foundation of 



EMPERORS OF THE THIRD CENTURY. 125 

the empire tbe emperor had been the commander of the army. The system of 
government was one which made the commander of the army also ruler of the 
state. During- the constant barbarian attacks on the frontiers, which continued 
all through the 8d century, able generals were an absolute necessity. By a 
stern law of self-preservation, an incapable general had to be displaced. But 
an emperor could only be overthrown by violence, and since there was no power 
in the state above that of the commanding general, the soldiers became, in the 
8d century, the judges and creators of the emperors. Often they were overthrown 
by conspiracies of discontent caused by strict discipline ; at other times they 
were overthrown for incompetence. In ninety-five years following the death of 
Commodus there were twenty-seven emperors. Only the leading names among 
these need be mentioned. 

Septimius Severus was a stern and successful ruler. His 
triumphal arch still stands in the Roman Forum. In his time 
lived the most famous lights of legal science — Papinian, Paulus, 
and Ulpian. 

Caracalla was son and successor of this emperor. The ruins 
of his famous baths are an astoimdiug evidence of the perfec- 
tion of material civilization under the empire. The character of 
Caracalla was bad, and his edict giving the rights of citizenship to 
all freemen of the empire is attributed to mercenary motives — to 
the design of increasing the revenue by increasing the number of 
taxable persons. It was, notwithstanding, tbe final and crowning 
step of the process by which the Eoman empire carried political 
equality and equal rights to all the nations it had conquered. After 
the short reign of Macrinus comes the name of Heliogabalus, the 
most infamous in personal character of all the emperors. His cousin, 
Alexander Severus, was a mild and worthy ruler. 

A time of terrible confusion followed the death of Alexander 
Severus. Barbarian attacks and a succession of emperors, often 
assassinated by the soldiers, continue until Aurelian, 270-275. 
Meantime the reign of Decius, about 250, is distinguished by the 
most terrible Christian persecution yet experienced. Its persistence 
and atrocity are a testimony to the constantly increasing numbers 
of the Christians. 



126 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



The reign of Aurelian is distinguished b}^ his expedition 
against Palmyra, the famous city and state of Queen Zenohia, lying 
east of Damascus, in an oasis of the Syrian desert. Zenobia was 
carried prisoner to Rome. Palmyra was de- 
stroyed. Its ruins are still highly remarkable. 
Another series of short reigns, with violent ends 
in general, intervenes before Diocletian, 284-305. 
With Diocletian begins a change of sys- 
tem which stopped the violence and disorders 
of the century preceding. His expedient was 
the multiplication of contemporaneous em- 
perors, dividing the government. This was a 
means of confronting the barbarian attacks 
on different frontiers, at one and the same time, 
with generals in supreme command. It also 
diminished the chances of successful conspira- 
cies, which could not well be carried out in far 
distant places at the same time. 

Under this emperor took place the tenth 
general persecution, but this was finally stopped 
l)y imperiid order. Notwithstanding the hostility of Diocletian to 
Christianity, a contemporary Pope, Eutychian, was his relation. 
One emperor of the 3d century, Philip, had been a Christian, 
although not publicly avowed. Alexander Severus had so far 
favored Christianity as to keep the statue of Christ in his palace. 




Komaii iniiuji 
Svria, 



GENERAL REVIEW OF THE EMPIRE DURING THE FIRST 
THREE CENTURIES AFTER CHRIST. 



Map Study, p. 116.— The Roman provinces were : Syria ; Asia Minor ; Tlirace ; Mace- 
donia : Dacia ; Greece ; Eas^tern and Central Europe south of the Danube, including the parts 
of modern Austria and Germany south of that river ; Switzerland and Germany east of the 
Rhine; Britain; France; Belgium; Spain; North Africa; Egypt; and Italy. These desig- 
nations of provinces are for the countries in general, without reference to the Roman local 
divisions. For instance, " Syria" implies Judaea, etc. The dates of the book for the acquisi- 



GENERAL REVIEW OF THE EMPIRE. 127 

tion of these provinces, as given in earlier sections, are fixed for the beginnings of the actual 
ascendency, \\ hich was sometimes earlier than the legal acquisition. 

The boundaries were : On the south — the African Desert of Sahara ; on the west— the 
Atlantic Ocean ; on the east— the Arabian Desert, the mountains of Armenia ; on the north— 
the Black Sea, the Carpathians, the Danube, and the Rhine. 

By the political union of all these countries a homogeneous civilization was dif- 
fused around the Mediterranean basin. The boundaries of civilization corresponded in general 
with the boundaries of the Roman empire. The empire was not only a change of government 
from the earlier republican form, it was a change of policy in the treatment of the provincials. 
It was the substitution of the power of a single ruler for life, whose mission was the sup- 
pression of extortion and the preservation of public order, for the power of a constantly 
changing body of extortionate officials whose short terms of office were an incentive to cor- 
ruption and oppression. But a system which is beneficial on the whole, may often be admin- 
istered by bad men. The characters of many emperors are disfigured in their private lives by 
horrible crimes. They do not, however, appear like the despots of Eastern nations, who often 
systematically crush their subjects and rob them of their property. 

The word. Roman, used of the times of the empire, does not indicate distinction of 
nationality. The Roman building in Syria may have been made by a Gaul, or the Roman 
building in France by a Syrian, just as a Roman building in Rome may have been made by an 
architect from Asia Minor. The word Roman, referring to the times of the empire, means a 
person of whatever nation having the protection of Roman law, whose country was defended 
by soldiers having Roman pay and directed by a general who received orders from the em- 
peror ; or it refers to objects having a common style and character, wherever found within the 
borders of the empire. 

This cosmopolitan character of the Roman empire is indicated in the birthplaces of 
the emperors. Constantine the Great, soon to be mentioned, was born at York, in England ; 
Diocletian was a Dalmatian ; Probus and Aurelian were Illyrians ; Macrinus was a Moor ; 
Maximin, a Thracian ; Philip, an Arab; Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus were Syrians; 
Caracalla and Septimius Severus were African Phoenicians ; Marcus Aurelius was a Spaniard ; 
Antoninus Pius was a Gaul : Hadrian and Trajan were Spaniards ; Nerva was a Cretan ; Domi- 
tian, Titus, and Vespasian were Italian, but not of Roman blood— leaving, as distinctively Roman 
emperors by blood, only the first five. So, for instance, the Apostle St. Paul from Tarsus, in 
Asia Minor, was a citizen of Rome. The Latin poet Ennius, the father of Latin literature, 
was a Greek ; the Latin poet Plautus was an African ; the Latin poet Terence was a Spaniard. 
Maecenas, the patron of Latin literature of the Augustan age, was an Etruscan ; the poet 
Martial and the philosopher Seneca were Spaniards, In the 1st century a. d,, soon after the 
time of Cicero, the leading school of Latin eloquence at Rome was taught by Spaniards. In 
the 2d century a. d., the most famous Latin writers were from France and Africa, The lead- 
ing school of Roman jurisprudence was Beyrout, in Syria. Papinian and Ulpian, among the 
most famous of the Roman lawyers of the empire, were Syrian Phoenicians. 

The liberal tendency of Roman political development had shown itself in the old 
republic, when the plebeians, mostly emigrants to Rome, were admitted gradually to the rights 
of the original settlers (patricians). The process accomplished in the original republic, was 
then repeated on a larger scale for all Italy. The wonderful permanence of Roman conquests 
in Italy is known to have been secured by admitting the conquered populations to full or lim- 
ited rights of Roman citizenship. The process went on under the empire until the edict of 
Caracalla making all freemen citizens. All nationalities had meantime been allowed represen" 



128 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

tation in the senate except native Egyptians. Caracalla also removed this last restriction. 
There was still a development of ihis tendency left for the Christian Koman time— namely, 
the manumission of the slaves. 

It will naturally be understood that these cosmopolite tendencies met Mith constant oppo- 
sition on the part of certain Romans. This was especially the case in the early days of the 
empire— the times of Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Caligula, and Nero— when the aristocratic 
party of native Romans saw themselves supplanted by the provincials. This aristocratic party 
of resistance to equal rights naturally found sympathizing support from men of letters, who 
were shocked by the relative barbarism of the new provincial Roman citizens. The emperors 
represented the policy of enfranchisement for the provinces, and were bitterly attacked by the 
historians of the time. Their characters were blackened in many cases unjustly. The unde- 
niably atrocious cruelties practised by some of the early emperors were generally provoked by 
the assassin policy of the reactionai'y party, which murdered Cajsar, the father of the provinces, 
and continued to threaten his successors with his fate. 

Civilization of the Empire.— By what has been said of the political greatness of pagan 
Rome, we are not to undei-rate the undeniable corruption of civilization in the period of the 
empire. This was admitted by the time itself. But the noblest spirits among the pagans— for 
instance, the Emperor Marcus Aurelius— were least inclined to the teaching of Christ, by which 
alone morality could be redeemed. All learned Christian writers admit the nobility of spirit 
and high conception of duty often found in pagan authors, but it is also agreed that the best 
period of antiquity lies far back of the empire, in the time of the Greek republics before Alex- 
ander, or of the Roman republic before 200 b. c. The pagan cultivation of the empire was 
only an afterglow, without lasting warmth or brightness. This being understood, it is impor- 
tant, before passing to events which introduced a new period of history, to rate at its full worth 
the Imperial material civilization. For this, by various channels, has become the property of 
modern times. 

The countries of the empire were relatively weak in pure and vigorous art, and the litera- 
ture shows less and less spontaneous power. But in luxuries, comforts, and inventions the 
time will compare favorably with om* own. 

Facilities for Travel. — Vessels sailed from Messina to Alexandria in six and a half days ; 
steamers now require six days for this distance. Travel on land was not conducted with the 
celerity of steam, but it was more expeditious than it has ever been since until 1830. In many 
countries the state of roads and bridires was better than it has ever been since— viz., in Greece, 
countries of later European Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, North Africa, Spain. In England, 
France, Italy, and South Germany, roads and bridges were better rhan they have ever been 
since until ISOO. 

Batlis.— Hundreds of cities were then more bountifully supplied with water than modern 
London, the present metropolis of the world. The city of Rome, in our own time, is the most 
plentifully supplied with water of any in Europe, and it depends on three only of its ancient 
fourteen aqueducts (p. 97). All provincial cities of importance boasted splendid public baths. 
Those built by Caracalla accommodated sixteen thousand bathers, and contained also, like 
several other similar structures in Rome, lecture-rooms, libraries, gymnasiums, art museums, 
public club rooms, etc., all free of charge. There were at least five other bath structures little 
inferior to those of Caracalla. 

Arts and Sciences.— Houses in Rome were built six stories high. Hackney coaches 
were used. The masonry work, plaster, cement, brick, and paints of the Roman time were far 
superior to our own. The arts of sculpture and of architecture existed in much higher perfection 



DISTRIBUTION OF RACES. 129 

than with us. Astronomers and geographers taught the rotundity of the earth. Its motion 
round the sun had also been discovered in Alexandria, the diameter of the earth had been 
measured there, and the distances of the fixed stars had been approximately indicated in the 
3d century b. c. (p. 68), but this knowledge was gradually lost in tlie time of the empire. The 
study of medicine was cultivated, and an anatomist of the 2d century a. d. pointed out some 
of the more minute differences between the structure of the ape and the human being. 

The prosperity of some countries was far greater than now— for instance of Syria, 
North Africa, Egypt, and Spain. Spain suppoi-ted forty millions of people ; it now supports eight 
millions. In the comforts and luxuries of living the period of the empire was not surpassed, 
if it was equaled, by our own. We were also outdone in the matter of colossal fortunes and 
the extravagant displays of wealth. 

Social and Moral Corruption.— A disgraceful stain on the time was its pleasure In 
the shows of the gladiators. These were frowned upon by many of the emperors, but in vain. 
Christianity alone could combat with the decay of Paganism, and the shows of the arena were 
abolished by a Christian monk. Social and moral corruption were then compatible, as they 
are now, with enormous material prosperity, with a high development of science, and with 
many wonderful inventions. (In 406 the monk Telemachus forced his way into the arena and 
threw himself between the contending gladiators. He was instantly killed, but the horror 
of the populace at his martyrdom led to the abolition of the games.) 



DISTRIBUTION OF RACES IN THE TIMES OF THE EMPIRE. 

Europe and the Mediterranean countries were mainly peopled at the bt ginning 
of the Christian Era by the races of our own time, but their distribution was not entirely the 
same as now. The race from which Bohemians, Poles, and Russians are descended (the 
Slavonic race, p. 31) was then, as now, located in Eastern Europe ; but the Laps and Finns 
were pushed down much farther in the North-east, and the Germans were spread farther to 
the East than at present. Bohemia had not yet been occupied by the Bohemian Slavonians ; 
the Hungarians had not fet come into Europe. The Turks were also unknown to Europe. 

The countries comprised in modern Turkey made up the eastern half of the 
Roman Empire, and, as has been explained in Greek History, had been conquered by 
Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great. The population here was mixed— Thraciaus, 
between Macedonia and the Hellespont ; Greeks on both sides of the ^gean and around the 
Black Sea; Armenians, Galatians, and other minor native populations in Asia Minor, were all 
Grecianized in culture and mixed with Greek blood. The Syrians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews 
in Syria were Grecianized and mixed with Greeks. The native population in Egypt was 
not mixed, but the rich and populous capital Alexandria was Greek (with a large Hebrew 
colony). The populations mentioned, as far as Avithin the Roman boundaries, all come under 
the explanations previously given of the Roman civilization and Roman citizenship. 

The German ti'ibes, uncivilized by Rome (there were Romanized Germans, south of 
the Danube and west of the Rhine), pressed against the Rhine and Danube. The inhabitants 
of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were Germanic and barbarian. 

France and Belg-ium were mainly peopled by the race which still remains there, i. e., 
by Romanized Gauls or Celts. The Romanized British belonged to the same Celtic stock, and 
so also the Irish and Highland Scotch tribes ; both the latter beyond Roman rule. Spain 
was peopled by Romanized Celto-Iberians (p. 31). In modern Spain the Iberian blood is 



130 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

thought to appear only io and near the Pyrenees (the Basques). There was also Phoenician 
blood (from Syria by way of Carthage) on the coasts of Southern and Eastern Spain. 

In France and Spain there had settled a large number of Italian and Roman colonists. This 
holds also of Northern Africa, where there were also Romanized Berbers or Moors ; Roman- 
ized Libyan^ and Romanized Phoenicians, the latter originally from Syria. 

These details of race are rather perplexing, and they may be used for reference rather 
than study. It is important mainly to understand that within the limits of the empire Latin 
and Greek supplanted the earlier dialects and languages. In spoken use Latin was general for 
the West and Greek was general for the East, but both languages were understood by all men 
of letters and by educated persons. All races within the limits of the empire were amal- 
gamated by commercial intercourse, by intermarriage, and by community of Greek civiliza- 
tion. As far as Europe was concerned, it may be divided into two parts, civilized and 
unci\ilized. The Rhine and Danube form the dividing line. The uncivilized di\ision is 
divided again into Germanic (West) and Slavonic (East). For foregoing matter compare a 
map of modern Europe with map at p. 116. 



FATHERS OF THE CHURCH DURING THE FIRST THREE 

CENTURIES. 

St. Ig-natius, Bishop of Antioch, suftered martyrdom under Trajan. 

St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, suffered martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius. He was 
a disciple of St. John the Evangelist. 

St. Irenseus. Bishop of Lyons, was disciple of St. Polycarp and author of a celebrated 
Treatise against Heresies. The chief source from which St. Irenasus draws his proofs is 
tradition, of which he shows the existence, the character and sacred authority in the Church. 
The argument of tradition had a peculiar force under the pen of a writer who counted between 
the Apostles and himself no other intermediary than the famous Bishop of Smyrna. 

St. Justin was born at Neapolis, in Palestine, of a family of pagan colonists established 
by Vespasian. Originally a pagan philosopher, he was converted during the last years of the 
reign of Hadrian. He was the first to open a Catholic school, where he moulded the minds of 
his pupils in the faith. His first ptxblication, entitled " Exhortation to the Greeks," was writ- 
ten to dissipate the prejudices of the pagans against Christianity. This work was a prelude 
to his first " Apology," which is supposed to have influenced Antoninus Pius to his toleration 
of the Christians. His second •' Apology," addressed to Marcus Aurelius, was soon followed 
by martyrdom. 

Clement of Alexandria flourished at the close of the 2d century. A convert from 
pagan philosophy, he became a fervent neophyte ; later, a zealous priest and indefatigable 
apostle. In the three books of the "Pedagogue " and in the eight " Stromata." the two most 
important of his works still extant, he constantly places religion at the summit of science by 
proving the excellence of its dogmas and their harmony with sound reason. 

TertuUian was born at Carthage, 160. He studied all the sciences, and succeeded in all 
of them. Although a pagan by birth and prejudices, he could not resist the profound im- 
pression made on his soul by the invincible constancy of the martyrs. He embraced the faith 
of Jesus Christ, became a priest, and soon after addressed to the magistrates of the Roman 
empire the most eloquent "Apology " which had yet been written. The "African Bossuet," 



FATHERS OF THE CHURCH 



131 



nothing would be wanting to his glory if he had always made humility the safeguard of his 

genius. 

Orig-en was for a time the intimate and instructor of Alexander Severus. His great 
work was a version of the Scriptures, collating and placing side by side the various texts. In 
his Commentaries some erroneous doctrines are found ; but his virtue, his love of poverty, his 




The Arch of Coustantiue at Rome. 



humility the courage with which he confessed the faith, his immense labors, can never be 
doubted by any one. Most of his life was spent at Alexandria. His period is the first half of 
the 3d century. 

St. Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage in the 3d century. He suffered martyrdom under 

the Emperor Valerian, 258. 

St. Laurence, archdeacon of Rome, died in the same persecution (the eighth). He was 
roasted on a large gridiron, which thus becomes his emblem in Christian art. 



132 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

St. Sebastian, a captain of the Prsetorian guards, was martyred by Diocletian. He is 
represented by the Cliristian artists as transfixed with arrows. This was his martyrdom. 

St. Anthony lived to witness the triumph of the Church under Constantine. He was 
born in Egypt of noble and wealthy parentage, but became an anchorite of the desert. T?ie 
foregoing section is condensed f/wn Abbe Darras'' " History of the Church.'''' 



EMPERORS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY. 

Constantine A. D. 306-337 

Constantinus, i " 337-340 

Constantius, V " 337-350 

Constans, ) " 337-361 

Julian the Apostate " 361-363 

Jovian, Valentinian I., Valeus, Gratian, Valentinian II. 

Theodosius the Great " 379-395 

Arcadius, ) " 395-(408j 

Honorius, j " 395-(423) 

The Roman Empire in its Christian Period. — In 30G 

began the reign of Constantine the Great, at first with coadjutors, 
with whom conflicts soon broke out. The victory at the Milvian 
Bridge, near Rome, over his rival Maxentius, in 312, was followed 
by an edict granting toleration and State recognition to the Chris- 
tians. 

" Shortly before this battle, as Constantine was marching at the head of his troops, a 
brilliant cross of light formed itself in the midst of the sky, in the direction of the sun. On 

this miraculous cross appeared in 
letters of fire these words: "In 
T'./ ^v'll V "^'^^H ^^^ signo vinces." The apparition 
J' .'>. ^.^^i^H of this prodigy, which was seen by 
V* (•"' 'H '^ W'^ V -^ ' \^m ^^^ whole army, deeply moved 




m 



^ f ' :M B>* ' V i -^' , ifl Constantine, who long j-ears after- 

> ^'M m'\ '"^ .'Q.'i'vl/J wards related it to Eiisebius 



VK C - .\ V^^liH Bishop of Caesarea. All that day 



J" ^iwBH ^^^^l-^>H -i .^^fllH ^^ ^^^^ preoccupied with this mar- 
vellous vision. The night foUow- 
Roraan Coin of the 4th Century, with the Christian ing the same cross appeared to him 
Monogram, Ch. E. anew. The next day, at the side of 

the Roman eagles, a banner of a 
form hitherto unknown was remarked. It was a long staff of gilded wood, bearing near the 
top a transverse beam, forming a cross, from the arms of which floated a banner of cloth of 
gold and jewels. Above it sparkled a crown of gold and precious stones, in the midst of which 



EMPERORS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY. 133 

was the monogram of Christ, formed of the two Greek initials of this name. This monogram 
and the image of the cross were also placed on the casques of the soldiers. Such was 
the famous "Labarum," and in this manner the cross, reserved until then as an infamous 
gibbet for the vilest criminals, after three centuries of outrages, incredulity and perse- 
cutions, triumphed over the world and became the standard of the Eomau legions."— 
(Abbe Darbas ) 

The co-regent and remainiiig rival of Constantine, Licinius, 
ruler in the East, continued to oppress the Christians. A war was 
the consequence, by which Licinius was overthrown, and in 324 
Constantine became sole ruler of the Roman w^orld. 

In 325 was held the famous Church Council of Nice (or 
Mcaea), by which the heresy of Arius, denpng the divinity of 
Christ, was condemned. 

In 330 the seat of government was removed from Rome to 
Constantinople, whose older name of Byzantium was changed to 
honor the emperor. 

This removal of the capital was prompted by reasons connected 
with the defence of the Eastern frontiers. After 226 A. D., the new 
Persian Empire of the Sassanids replaced the Parthians in the Tigris- 
Euphrates valley. (For the Parthians, see p. 61.) Ever since the 
rise of this new Persian empire, which made itself strong by copying 
the arts and mihtary science of the Romans, the emperors had been 
involved in constant wars on the Euphrates. By placing the capital 
at Constantinople the seat of government was moved as far as pos- 
sible toward the East, without being farther removed from the camps 
of the Danube and Rhine frontier than before. In the century 
before Constantine, the most vigorous and numerous of all German 
tribes, the Goths, had moved down from Scandinavia and w^ere 
threatening the lower Danube, and this was an additional reason 
for centering the forces of government at Constantinople. 

It is manifest that these military considerations would not sug- 
gest a removal of the spiritual supremacy of the Roman Popes from 
its first home, nor did Constantine attempt this. On the contrary, 
he made the See of Rome more powerful than before. 

Constantine, dying in 337, w^as followed by his three sons, 



134 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

Constantinus, Constantiiis, and Constans. Their reigns lasted from 
337 to 361. 

Julian the Apostate, 361-363, represented the expiring effort 
of Paganism to retrieve itself, but even the effort of an absolute 
emperor made not the slightest impression. 

Theodosius the Great, 379-395, closed the Pagan temples 
and made their worship illegal. Those events of his reign, and of 
that of his predecessor Valens, which belong to the German inva- 
sions, are related in the German history. 

The century of Constantine the Great is one of the most im- 
portant in the history of Cliristianity. For no sooner was the conversion of 
the empire in general accomplished than that of the German tribes (fore- 
most the Goths) began. A Gothic bishop was present at the Council of Nice 
in 325. The translation of the Bible by the German (Gothic) Bishop Ulfilas, 
praised for its fidelity by St. Jerome, is the oldest literary monument of Ger- 
manic language (4th century). He omitted the Books of the Kings, lest their 
warlike spirit should influence the savage minds of the Gothic warriors. Hand 
in hand with the Christianizing process went on the Romanizing, that is, the 
civilizing process. But the Arian heresy was also spread far and wide among 
the Romanized Germans by its apostles. 

In 395 Theodosius the Great died. His sons, Arcadius and 

Honorius, divided the empire between them. Arcadius took the 
Eastern division, Honorius the Western. This division was not 
intended to be permanent. It was made for convenience of gov- 
ernment in times when military commanders with imperial powders 
were absolutely needed in more than one place. Such divisions 
were first made by Diocletian ; they had been habitual since. But 
this one is emphasized by history because, almost immediately after, 
the Western division of the empire w^as overrun by the German 
tribes. 

The 5th century is the time of the German invasions and of 
the overthrow of Eoman temporal authority in the West. The 
account of these events of the 5th century will be given in con- 
nection ^vith the German tribes which took part in them. 



BYZANTINE ROME 



135 




Mosaic Portrait of Jus- 
tinian, at Ravenna. 



Byzantine or East-Rome. — The temporal empire of Rome 

in Eastern Europe continued a thousand years 

beyond the 5th century, till 1453, when the last 

of the Roman emperors fell, fighting bravely in 

the breach of the city walls over which the 

Turks were pouring to the sack of Constanti- 
nople. A glance at a modern map of Europe 

will exhibit the approximate correspondence of 

area between modern Turkey and the provinces 

of the Roman Empire after the 5th century 

A. D. (Compare map at p. 140.) This Roman 

Empire of the East is known, however, in gen- 
eral usage as the Byzantine 
Empire. Byzantium was 
the older name of the city, 
re-named by Constantine, 
Constantinople ; hence this 
adjective. 

After the Emperor 
Justinian (6th century), 
famous for his great codi- 
fication of the Roman Law, 
the Cor 2ms Juris, which 
is still the great authority 
for legal students ; the 
written history of Eastern 
Rome is studied only by 
specialists. But the un- 
written history of that 
slow process by which the 
civilization of the old world, 
partially buried in the 
West under the ruins of 
into Europe by Italian com- 




The Cburcli ot bt. teoi)iiia ai Cou-uuiuiopli Built 
by Justinian. A Turkioii Mosque since 1453. 

the German invasions, filtered back 



136 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

merce, is not to be estimated from the pages of books. At tlie 
moment when this process was completed, the Turks drove the sur- 
viving representatives of ancient culture into Italy, 1453, where 
they assisted in the Revival of Learning, and aided the culture of 
the Renaissance. 

The Byzantine "world exercised an important influence on 
North-eastern Europe. Its most important corps of soldiery was 
recruited from the Northmen of Scandinavia. The Northmen who 
in the 9th century founded the state which grew into the modern 
Russia, were therefore in more or less intimate relation with Con- 
stantinople, though often also at war with its emperors, and in the 
11th century they adopted the Byzantine Greek Christianity. After 
1453 the Russians regarded themselves as the heirs of East-Rome, 
and have waged many wars with the Turks in consequence. 

FATHERS OF THE CHURCH IN THE FOURTH AND FIFTH 

CENTURIES. 

The accession of Pope St. Sylvester I., took place one year after the edict of Con- 
etantine recognizing Christianity. His epoch is also that of Lactantius, Athanasius, and 
Eusebius of Csesarea. 

Lactantius professed rhetoric at Nicoraedia, in Asia Minor, and was summoned by Con- 
slantine to preside over the education of his eldest son. He has been called the Christian 
Cicero. His most celebrated work is that on the death of the Christian persecutors. 

Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea, was an indefatigable historian, and rendered an eminent 
service in preserving to history, by his " Chronicle," the precious monuments of the primitive 
Church. His conduct in the great question of Arianism was not exempt from reproach. The 
teaching of Arius, a priest of Alexandria, tended to deny the divinity of Christ. His great 
opponent was St. Athanasius. This heresy was the cause of the Council of Nice, 325, from 
which dates the Nicene Creed. 

St. Athanasius was made Bishop of Alexandria in 326. For nearly half a century he sus- 
tained with unshaken fidelity, through all changes of outward fortune, the part he had chosen 
of champion of the Catholic doctrine. 

St. Gregory of Naziansus was born 316. He became Bishop of Constantinople in the 
time of Theodosius, and was renowned for his eloquence. He closed his long career of saint, 
doctor, bishop, and hermit in 398. At Athens, whither St. Gregory had resorted for study, he 
had met St. Basil, from that tim_e his fast friend. 

St. Basil, 317-379, was born at Cassarea in Cappadocia, of which place he became Bishop. 
His Greek style is so pure that Erasmus did not hesitate to compare it to that of the old Greek 
orators, even to Demosthenes himself. 

St. Cyril, native and Bishop of Jerusalem, belongs to the same century. His "Catechet- 



FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. 



13? 



icals " are a monument of inestimable worth, on account of tlie clearness and order with which 
the Christian doctrine is explained and defended. 

St. Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers (Poy-te-a), was the brightest ornament of the Church of 
Gaul in the 4th century. A second champion, woi'thy of St. Hilary, was St. Martin of Tours. 

St. Ambrose was made Bishop of Milan in 374. In consequence of a tumult at Thessa- 
lonica, the Emperor Theodosius sent an order for a general massacre. St. Ambrose went to the 
emperor, remonstrated with him on his barbarity, and prevailed on him to promise that the 
command should be revoked. The mandate was, however, carried into execution, and seven hun- 
dred persons were slaughtered in cold blood. Shortly afterward, when Theodosius was about to 
enter the great church of Milan, Ambrose met him at the porch and forbade him to appear in the 
holyplace. The emperor pleaded the example of David. " You have imitated David in his crime, 
imitate him in his repentance," was the reply, and Theodosius was excluded from the church for 
eight months, and then was compelled not only to perform penance, but to sign an edict that an 
interval of thirty days should pass before any sentence of death or of confiscation should be 
executed. The numerous works of St. Ambrose on the Sacred Scriptures and against heresies, 
his books on morals, and his letters, all abound in a wonderful unction and sweetness of style. 
In his writings we find the first mention of the w'ord Mass in relation to the Holy Sacrifice of 
the altar. The Church still sings several hymns of his composition. Tradition attributes to 
St, Ambrose the Te Deum, the solemn anthem of thanksgiving adopted by the whole Church. 

St. Augustine was born in the year 354 in the little city of Tagastg, in the Roman 
province of Numidia (the present Algeria). His mother, St. Monica, brought him up in the 
fear of God, but the ardent disposition of the youth led him into the path of pleasures, which 
he joined to an unquenchable thirst for knowledge. At the age of twenty-eight years Augus- 
tine had mastered the whole circle of human science then taught, and gained the unbounded 
applause of all his masters. He was then a celebrated professor of rhetoric at Carthage. He 
went from here to Italy and obtained the chair of rhetoric in the city of Milan. Under the 
influence of St. Ambrose, Augustine w^as converted. He returned to Africa in 388, was con- 
secrated Bishop of Hippo in 395. In his immortal work, the "City of God," he shows the 
kingdom of truth rising upon the ruins of 
empires, and displays the plan of Provi- 
dence in the institution of the Church and 
in its development through all time. St. 
Augustine died in 430, as the flames, kindled 
by the barbarian Vandals, devoured his epis- 
copal city of Hippo. 

St. Jerome was born about 331, of a 
noble and wealthy family in the Roman 
province Dalmatia. He spent part of his 
youth in traveling through Gaul and Asia. 
At Rome he was baptized, then visited 
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, to form himself 
to the religious life by the example of the 
monks and saintly hermits whom he met 
there. St. Jerome brought to the service 
of the truth more learning than any other 




St. Paul's outside the Walls, 
4th Century.* 



at Rome. 



* Partly destroyed by fire in 1832, and since reconstructed. 



13S 



T 11 E U O M A .N EMPIRE 



father of the Latin Church. His immeuse labors ou the Scriptures are equaled only by his 
incredible mortitication, his love of retreat and poverty, and his burning charity, which 
moved the j,'reut St. Augustine to compare him to St. Paul. His style is energetic, rich in 
figures and in lofty and concise thoughts. His great work was the translation of the sacred 
writings known as the "Vulgate." St. Jerome died in Palestine in 420 at the age of eighty. 

St. John Clirysostom of Autioch was made Patriarch of Constantinople in 398. He 
achieved a reputation which ranks amid the most illustrious and best merited of the Christian 
Fathers. The foregoing section is condensed from Abbe Dcuras " History of the Church.^'' 



GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

FIRST LESSON IN KEVIKW. 

In what century was overthrown the Roman jiower in Western Europe? 

By whom ? (P. 134.) 

When were these Germans generally Christianized ? (P. 134.) 

But what heresy was also prevalent among them ? 

By what council was this heresy condiMinied ¥ (P. 133.) 

Who was then emperor ? 

When was he baptized ? Ans. On his death-bed. 

But when did he oflicially recognize the Christian Faith? 

W^hat emperor preceded liim ? 

When was the last Christian persecution ? (P. 12t).) 

By what emperor was Pagan worship forbidden and Christianity recognized as stato 
religion ? (P. 134.) 

W'ho were the sons of Theodosius the Great ? 

W^hen did they succeed him ? 

W^hy is the year 395 a. d. a memorable date ? 

What is the connecting link between the Germame period in Western Europe, beginning 
in the 5th century, and the Roman period preceding? Ans. The Roman Churcli. 

What great Fathers of the Church belong to both periods ? 

What was the nature of the division of the empire made by Areadius and Honorius ? 
(P. 134.) 

How long after the 4th century lasted the Roman Euipire of the East ? 

By what name is it generally known ? 

Why? 

What is the importance of this empire for the West ? (P. 135.) 

What influence had it on modern learning ? 

W' hat emperor caused the compilation of the Corptts Juris f 



SECOND LESSON IN REVIEW. 

What countries, on a modern map, belonged to the Byzantine Empire ? 

When did its capital fall ? (P. 135.) 

How old was Columbus in 1453 ? Ans. Seventeen years old. 

Name the important emperors of the 4th century. 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 



139 



Of the 3d century ? 

What is the character of the 3rd century? 
What policy preserved the state from dissolution at its close? 
Name the emperors of the 2nd ceutury. 
Name the emperors of the 1st century. 
Were these emperors generally of Roman blood ? (P. 127.) 
What do you mean by " Roman ' in the times of the empire ? (P. 127.) 
What countries were included in the empire ? (P. 126.) 
What languages were general ? (P. 130.) 

What peoples were included within the Imperial borders ? (P. 129.) 
What peoples lay beyond the Danube and the Rhine ? 
In whose reign did they begin to be formidable ? (P. 124.) 
In what century did they contribute to the disorders of the empire ? (P. 125.) 
In what century were many of them Christianized ? (.P. 134.) 
What other process accompanied the religious change ? (P. 134.) 
By whom was the Roman power of the West overthrown '; 
In what century ? 

What history therefore naturally follows that of the Roman Empire ? Am. The history of 
the Germans and of Germany. 



GERMANY 

TILL A. D. 1500, INCLUDING THE GERMANIC STATES 
IN WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE CHARLEMAGNE. 



EARLY HISTORY TILL A. D. 410. 

Language and Character. — The earliest written document in a Ger- 
manic language is the translation of the Bible by the Visigothic Bishop Ulfilas 
(p. 134). For our knowledge of earlier times we are dependent on the accounts 
of the Romans, upon the comparison of languages, and on a survival (especially 
in Iceland) of the Scandinavian form of Germanic Heathenism to a later age 
than that in which the peoples of Germany itself became Christians. 

The comparison of languages proves that all the great races of 
Europe excepting Finns and Laps, Hungarians, Turks, and Basques belong to 
a common family, the Aryan (p. 31). 

The Germanic branch of this family included, besides the tribes of 
Germany, the Anglo-Saxons, who settled in England in the 5th century A. D. 
(they came from the peninsula of Jutland and the provinces of Sleswick- 
Holstein) ; also the Dutch, Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. The three latter 
are also known as Northmen, or Normans. 

Our first written accounts of the manners and customs of the Ger- 
mans are found in the Latin historian Tacitus (time of Domitian and Trajan). 
He took pleasure in holding up the simple lives of an uncivilized people as a 
reproach to the corruption of the Romans. According to Tacitus the Germans 
were of powerful build, with blonde hair ; brave in war, faithful in peace ; 
chaste in their morals, but given to drunkenness. They practised agriculture, 
but without being thoroughly fixed as to locality of settlement and personal 
ownership of the land. They governed themselves as free men, but gave 
unswerving allegiance to their chosen military chief. Women were treated as 
the equals of men, and their judgment was held in esteem. A deeper insight 



EARLY HISTORY. 141 

into early Germanic nature is offered by its Heathen mythology, which was 
mystical, fantastic, imaginative, gloomy, and contemplative. 

Cimbri and Teutons. — One hundred and thirteen years before Christ, 
a horde of barbarians swept over Southern France and North Italy, till they 
were exterminated by the Roman general, Marius (page 100). They were 
called the Cimbri and Teutons ; the latter, at least, were doubtless Germans. 

Fifty years later, a band led by a chieftain named Ariovistus, and prepar- 
ing to invade France from Switzerland, was headed oflFby Julius Caesar (p. 104). 

The campaigns of Caesar in Gaul, which at this time secured that 
province for the empire, 58-51 b. c, carried the Romans to the Rhine and sub- 
jected certain German tribes along the west Rhine bank. Tiberius, serving as 
general under Augustus, pushed the Roman power over South Germany to the 
Danube. 

Roman Germany. — Thus within the regular limits of the empire, had 
been included, from the opening of the 1st century A. D., Austria proper — 
that is, German Austria — the Tyrol, the South Danube territory of modern 
Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden. Beyond the line of the Danube where it 
bends to the south, at Regensburg (Ratisbon), the Roman line continued to the 
Rhine north of the River Main. 

Meantime, from the Lower Rhine, Roman troops, by various expeditions, 
had pushed eastward to the Elbe. But this territory was lost by the fatal de- 
feat of Varus in the Teutoburger Forest, near Lippe Detmold, in Northwest 
Germany, 9 A. D. Augustus cried out, in despair at this defeat : " Varus, 
Varus, give me back my legions." 

The German Chieftain Hermann, the hero of the victory, lives to 
this day in the memory of his nation. A commemorative statue was erected 
on the site of the battle a few years ago. After this defeat no further attempt 
was made to advance the Roman boundaries in Germany beyond the limits in- 
dicated. 

In 1869 was discovered near the site of this battle a richly decorated Roman silver table 
service, supposed to have been lost in this defeat. It is now in the Berlin Museum. 

Until the time of Commodus, 180 a. d., the German tribes made no 
serious attempts against the frontier, although there were occasional wars with 
individual tribes. During the time between Augustus and Commodus the 
Roman military camps served a most important purpose. They were also trad- 
ing posts and the points from which the Roman merchants made their way over 
Germany. It was Roman policy, as far as possible, to settle its soldiers as 
farmer-colonists at the different military posts ; and so the legions were agents 
in disseminating the arts of civilization. Many Germans were enrolled as Ro- 



142 



GERMANY 



man soldiers. Some came to seek service from beyond the frontier and returned 
to teach their kinsmen the use of Roman arms and Roman discipline. (Caesar 

had won his victory over Ponipey 
at Pharsalia with his German Ra- 
ta vian cavalry.) The Rhine and 
Danube frontier included, as we 
have seen, Romanized Germanic 
provinces, and these naturally fur- 
nished large contingents of German 
blood to the legions. 

After the reign of Com- 
niodiis a great migration of 
the Gotlis towards Southern 
Europe unsettled and dis- 
turbed the other German 
tribes. These were crowded 
against the frontier, and lack- 




German Soldier in Koman Pay. 
(From Beliefs on the Column of Trajan.) 



ing room, began to war upon it. Tlie 3d century was a terrible 
time of conflict. But necessity forced Rome to turn one tribe 
against another. An entire tribe might thus be enrolled at once in 
Roman service, for military discipline was already becoming familiar 
to the Germans. 

In the time of Probus, about 275 a. d., the territory outside 
tlie Danube line was lost (Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, part of Wur- 
temberg). Still, through the 4th century, the main frontier was 
successfully defended. 

It was in the reign of Valens, 376 a. d., that the first for- 
midable break occurred. Just as the Goths had disturbed and unset- 
tled the locations of German tribes in the 3d century, so in their 
turn the Goths were now disturbed, but this time by an Asiatic 
race. 

The Huns appeared in 376 A. D. north of the Black Sea, 
crowding the Goths against the lower Danube. The Huns (Mon- 
golians) were disgusting in appearance and habits, of squat stature, 
thorough barbarians, but admirable borsemen. The Goths first 



E A R L Y H I S T R Y . 143 

encountered by them (the East-Goths or Ostrogoths) were forced 
into their array. The West-Goths or Visigoths (Christians, but 
professing Arianism) besought permission from their Roman breth- 
ren to cross the Danube. It was accorded. 

About 200,000 warriors, with women and children, entered Ro- 
man territory. They were ill treated by officials appointed to care 
for them, revolted, and marching on Adrianople, defeated the Em- 
peror Yalens, who was killed in the battle, a. d. 378. His suc- 
cessor was the Theodosius the Great, already known to us. He 
enrolled the West-Goths in the Roman army and settled them as 
soldier-colonists south of the Danube. 

After the death of Theodosius, during a quarrel between 
his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, this army of Goths was marched 
into Italy. It was commanded by Alaric, who sacked Rome in 
410. Alaric died in the following year. 

His people diverted the river Busento from its bed, dng a grave in it, and after burial 
turned the stream back to its course, that the tomb might never be disturbed. 

His successor was his nephew Athaulf, who concluded a treaty 
with Honorins. 

Map Study.— See on a modem map of Germany the various rivers indicated, and the 
territories noted as Roman, and compare with the outline of the empire, at p. 116. See 
modern maps for Hesse Darmstadt, Baden, Wurtemberg, Adrianople. 



GERMANIC STATES IN WESTERN EUROPE. 

Honorius gave his sister Galla Placidia in marriage to Athaulf, 
and as her dowry the lands of Northeast Spain ( Catalonia =Gotha- 
lunia). To this was soon added Southwest France and nearly the 
whole of Spain. Thus was founded, 412-415 A. d., the state of the 
West-Goths, the first Germanic kingdom on Roman territory. 
Like all its followers, except the Anglo-Saxon states in England, 
it was Christian and partially Romanized. 

The theory on which the West- Goth state was founded is best understood by 
recalling the Roman habit of paying off soldiers in lands, and of settling them as colonists in 
large bodies. It had long been customary to incorporate whole bodies of German troops into 



144 



GERMANY. 



the Roman armies, and the West-Goths, having already once settled in the Eastern Empire, 
simply changed to the Western. Moreover, divisions of the empire under separate rulers, for 
military purposes, were customary since Diocletian (pp. 126, 134), What distinguishes this par- 
ticular settlement is that it was permanent, and created a new state, and that other states fol- 
lowed it. We shall understand better why Houorius fixed the West-Goths as Roman soldiers in 
France and Spain by recurring to an event which happened four years before Alaric's sack of 
Rome. 













On the Christmas-night of 406 a horde of German tribes 

had pushed across the Ehine. 
The frontier was broken, and 
its military guards were scat- 
tered. Pushed on by the swarm 
of Huns and East-Goths mov- 
ing into Central Europe, Ger- 
man tribes had, since that year, 
been pillaging and marauding all 
over France and Spain. Hono- 

Tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna. ^i^^g j^^dc the West-Goths a home 

that they might reduce these tribes to order and restore security 
to the country. 

Among the tribes which crossed the Rhine in 406 a. d. 
were the (German) Bm-gundians, who settled themselves just 
after 415 A. D. in the valley of the Rhone and Soane. Burgundy is 
named after them. 

The (G-erman) Franks were another tribe. They remained 
for the time being in the territory of modern Belgium. France is 
named after them. 

The (German) Sueves, who left their name in Suabia, had 
passed into Spain before the West-Goths founded their state, and 
were then driven by the Goths up into the northwest corner of 
that country. Finally they were incorporated in the AYest-Goth 
state. 

The (German) Vandals had also passed into Spain. Anda- 
lusia is named aftter them. In a. d. 429 they moved over into 
Africa, conquering the Roman province there. Their leader, Gen- 



• GERMAXIC STATES, FIFTH CENTURY. 145 

seric, settling himself at Carthage, began to harry Sicily and 
Italy. 

The (G-erman) Angles and (German) Saxons, living in Sles- 
wick-Holstein, on the shores of the Baltic and iS^rth Seas, were 
invited into England, in 449, to protect the Eoman Britons from 
the Picts and Scots of Scotland. The Roman garrisons had been 
withdrawn early in the century for service on the Continent. 

The only German state not Christian at the tim^ of settlement (or directly 
after, like the Franks), was this one. The Anglo-Saxons were not converted 
till after a. d. 600, and meantime exterminated the British Christians, or drove 
them into Wales. 

In 451 A. D., two years after the Angles and Saxons first 
landed in England, the army of the Huns had reached France, led 
by Attila, '• the Scourge of God.*' Attila was met at Chalons-sur- 
Marne by a united army of Franks, Romans, West-Goths, and Bur- 
gundians-Christians fighting against heathen, Romans and Roman- 
ized fighting against barbarism. The Huns were defeated. The 
encounter was so terrible that the spirits of the dead were said, in 
popular tradition, to have continued for three days fiohtin^ above 
the battle-field. 

This is ihe subject of an immense wall-picture by Kaulbach in the Berlin Museum. 

The Huns drew off from France. They next invaded Italv, a d 450 
Attila their leader was directing his army against the walls of^Rome when 
Pope Leo I., attended by his prelates, rode out to meet him and warned him 
to desist. Tradition relates that the Pope was aided by a supernatural appari- 
tion. Raphael has so represented the event in his famous wall-picture in the 
Vatican. After this the Huns withdrew from Italy, and were gradually dis- 
persed and lost sight of. The city of Venice was founded in this vear 452 by 
fugitives from Padua, who fled to the swamps and lagunes of the Adriatic in 
their dread of Attila. 

In the very centre of the Invasions of the 5th century stands the 
pontificate of St. Leo I. the Great. -The decisions of the great Pope were 
sought for by all the bishops of the world at a time when the torrent of inva 
sion pouring over every point of the Roman frontier added daily increasing 



146 



GERMANY 



difficuties to the Papal administration. He lias left us an imperishable monu- 
ment of apostolic eloquence in sixty-nine discourses. To these labors we must 
add the great deeds of his glorious pontificate — Rome saved ; once from the 
invasion of the Hun Attila and again from murder and flames threatened by 
the Vandal Genseric." 



The Empire loses Italy. — Meantime Honorius, in 4=25, had 
been succeeded by Valentinian III. (425-455), an emperor who 
makes no figure in the events of the time. The leaders of the 
Barbarian troops were more noted than the emperors of the West, 
whom they protected. Ricimer, one of these captains, nominated 
the insignificant successors of Valentinian. After Ricimer's death 
in 472 his post of commander fell to Orestes, who made his own 
son, Romulus Augustulus, emperor of the West in 475. 

The German troops, under their leader Odoacer, now demanded 
a third of the lands of Italy. When this was refused they slew 
Orestes, and Odoacer made himself king of Italy, 476. Romulus 
Augustulus returned to private life. Odoacer professed allegiance 
to the Eastern emperor, but was practically independent of him. 
This date, 476, is generally fixed as the year of the downfall of the 
Western Empire. 

The Ostro-Grothic Empire in Italy. — Odoacer's rule had 

lasted fourteen years, when the 
Emperor of East-Rome, Zeno, 
commissioned the East-Goths 
(now separated from the Hans) 
to reconquer Italy, 490. They 
did so under Theodoric the 
Great, who ruled Italy wisely 
and humanely till 526. The 
tomb of Theodoric the Great 
is an important monument of 

Tomb of Theodoric the Great, at Ravenna. 

The East-Goths held Italy 
for over fifty years. They were expelled, 553, by the generals 




GERMANIC STATES, SIXTH CENTURY. 147 



of Jiistiniaii (p. 135), who also reconquered for East-Rome the 
proYince of Africa from the Vandals, 534. 

The Byzantine generals held Italy for fifteeu years, and they 
were then expelled by the (German) Longohards. 

The Longobards occupied hi 568, under Alboin, the whole of 
the Peninsula, excepting the territory about Ravenna, Genoa, the 
city of Rome, and parts of Southern Italy. 

The Liong-obard or Lombard Germans (after them Lombardy is named) were thor- 
ough barbarians when they conquered Italy. They were made doubly odious to the native 
population by their adherence to the Arian herei?y, which led them to persecute the orthodox 
Catholics. The Lombards made drinking-cups of the skulls of their enemies. Alboin had 
married the daughter of a barbarian chief, whom he had slain, and forced her to drink from 
the skull of her own father at a banquet. In revenge she procured his assassination. 

The Exarchate of Ravenna. — The territories mentioned as not con- 
quered by the Lombards were called the Exarchate of Ravenna, because ruled 
by an exarch, or governor, whose 



capital was here. They were a 
portion of the East-Roman Empire 
until the 8th century, when the 
Exarchate became the foimdation 
of the temporal power of the Pope. 
The territorial rights which the 
Eastern emperor had hitherto exer- 
cised over the city of Rome and 
other portions of Italy not held by 
the Lombards, were lost as a result 
of the Iconoclastic edicts of the East- 
ern emperors. 

The Iconoclastic, or image- 
breaking movement, was an attempt 
by the Eastern emperors to forbid 
the use of images and pictures in the churches. This interference with affairs 
of the Church was resisted by the Popes, and led to the severance of their 
temporal connection with the East-Roman Empire. The political power of 
an absolute sovereign was exerted to such an extent in this dispute over the 
bishops ot the Eastern Church, that the beginnings were thus made of the 
Greek Schism, which dates from Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, in the 
9th century. Although the Iconoclastic movement was abandoned in the 




Cliurch of San Apollinare, 6th century, at 
Ravenna. 



148 GERMANY. 

Eastern Empire, the policy of temporal interference with the Church was con- 
tinued by its emperors. Thus were raised to the Patriarchate of Constanti- 
nople the unworthy and corrupt political agents, by whom the Greek Schism 
was inaugurated. 

The Popes were thus left without a temporal protection, even in name, 
and they had long suffered from the encroachments of the Lombards, who now 
conquered the Exarchate of Ravenna and prepared to besiege Rome. In this 
extremity Pope Stephen III. turned, a. d. 754, for protection to the (German) 
Franks, whose rise to power may now be logically described. 

Map Study. — Visigothic Empire, p. 140. Burgundian Empire, p. 140. See map of mod- 
ern France for course of the Ehone and. Saone ; compare the smaller dimensions of the Duchy 
of Burgundy. Suevic Empire, p. 140. Suabia is a name applied to a portion of South Ger- 
many, parts of Bavaria and Wurtemberg. Vandal Empire, p. 140. Andalusia, modern map, 
Anglo-Saxons in England, p. 140. Sleswick-Holstein, modern map. Chalons-sur-Marne, 
Venice, Padua; modern map. 

The Italian kingdom of Odoacer, founded in 476, was overthrown by the Ostrogoths before 
500. Ostrogothic Empire, p. 140. Lombard kingdom in Italy after 568. 

The Empire of East Rome is entered on map for Europe about 500 a. d. as the "Greek 
Empire." These terms are used synonymously with " Byzantine." 

See location of the Lombards before invasion of Italy. On same map, Ravenna, Genoa. 



RISE OF THE (GERMAN) FRANKS. 

The Franks permanently crossed the Rhine after 406 a. d., 
(p. 144), first settling in Belgium. Toward the latter part of the 
5th century, Clovis, originally a petty chief of the Franks of Tour- 
nay, made himself head of the whole tribe (481). 

In 486, by the battle of Soissons (swoy-song*), he overthrew 
the Eoman power, which till that time had continued to hold out 
in Northern France. 

The battle of Tolbiac (west of Cologne) reduced to subjection 
the (German) Allemanni in 497. From them is derived the 
French word for Germany — Allemagne. 

In 507 the Frankish territory received an enormous addition, 
the whole of West-Gothic France (excepting territory bordering the 

* The French nasal "n" has been indicated here by a final " g," as there is no other way 
of denoting this sound in English. But to pronounce the "g" is to pronounce French badly. 
Better rely on the pronunciation as given by a French scholar. 



RISE OF THE (GERMAN) FRANKS 



149 



Mediterranean called Septimania), won by the battle of Yougle 
(vou-le-a), near Poitiers. 

About thirty years later the Burgnndian state was incor- 
porated in the Frankish, and by the same time the rnle of the 
Franks had been pnshed eastward over Central 
Germany to the monntains of Boliemia. Besides 
this eastern boundary, the territory was bounded 
here by the Alps on the south and by the Thurin- 
gian forest on the north (locality of the later 
Saxon duchies). 

By A. D. 550 the Frankish state had about 
all the territory which it held in a. d. 750. The 
rapid success of its arms in France is explained 
by the fact that the Franks were orthodox Cath- 
olics. The Catholic Gallo-Roman native popu- 
lation hated its Arian rulers, the West-Goths and 
Burgundians, and popular sympathy secured the 
triumph of Clovis and his successors. ciovis.* 




The 6th and 7th centuries were times of dense ignorance and bloody 
crimes among the Franks, but the Church was doing its best to master this 
unruly material. Interesting indications of the barbarism of Frankish culture 
in this period are the jewels. Side by side, in the same gold mounting, are 
found precious antique gems and bits of colored glass. 

The missionary work of the Church with the Gei-man tribes was 
carried out under the auspices of the Order of St. Benedict, founded early in the 
6th century. Its members were the disseminators at once of Christianity and 
of the arts and knowledge of the older civilization. 

St. Benedict was a native of Nursia, in Southern Italy. The monastery 
of Monte Cassino, founded in his lifetime, is still the famous centre of his 
Order. 

Pope St. Gregory the Great sent his famous mission to the Anglo- 
Saxons in England at the end of the Gth century (in 597). For further accounts 
of Church missions at this time, see Irish history. 



* Tombstone formerly in the Abbey of St. Genevieve at Paris. 



150 GERMANY. 

Map Study.— See modern map for Tournay, Soissons, Cologne. The map at p. 140 
shows the Frankish state after battles of Soissons and Tolbiac, but before Vougle. Merovseus 
was a reputed ancestor of Clovis, and his dynasty is called the " Merovingian." See map of 
modern Germany for mountains of Bohemia and Thuringia. Monte Cassino is in South Italy, 
northwest of Naples. 

FOUNDATION OF THE FRANK CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 

In the opening of the 8th century the Mohammedan Arabs 
had entered Spain by way of the straits of Gibraltar. (Gibraltar is 
a corruption of JelDel-el-Tarik-'^The Hill of Tarik.") In the 7th 
century they had already overthrown the East-Roman power in 
Syria, Egypt, and North Africa (see history of the Arabs and 
Turks). Tarik landed in Spain, 711, and the West-Goth Empire 
of Spain was overthrown in one battle. 

Southern France was soon reached. The hosts of Islam were 
preparing to annihilate Christendom, The Arabs of Spain were 
to march over France and the Arabs of the East Avere to attack 
Constantinople. 

But Charles Martel, that is, Charles the Hammer, met the 
Spanish Arabs at Poitiers and utterly defeated them, 732. The son 
of Charles Martel w^as Pepin. 

Pepin, like his father, had been Mayor of the Palace, that is 
to say. Prime Minister. But he was minister of a king of a 
decrepid dynasty, physically and intellectually unfit to rule, and, 
with the approval of Pope Zachary, Pepin was made king of the 
Franks, 752. 

Two years later Pope Stephen III., pressed by the Lombards, 
turned for protection to the heir of Clovis and the son of the 
preserver of Christendom. Pepin entered Italy, rescued the Roman 
Pontiff from his distress, humbled the Lombards, and expelling 
them from the Exarchate of Ravenna, gave it over to the Pope 
(p. 148). 

This was the beginning of the States of the Church. 
Pepin was founder of the Carlovingian dynasty. The son of Pepin 
was Charlemagne, who succeeded his father in 768. 



GERMANIC STATES. 4 00-8 A. D. 151 

GERMANIC STATES IN ORDER OF FOUNDATION. 

Fifth Century. 

TTcr . /-. xi X X A-i- ( Roman provinces of South- West France 

West-Goth state 41o j ^^^ g^^j^ 

Burgundian state. . j About the same ) Roman provinces of S. E. France. 

Suevic state ( time. ) Roman province N. W. Spain. 

Vandal state 429 Roman province of North Africa. 

Anglo-Saxon states 449 Roman province of Britain. 

Frankish state 486 Roman province of North France. 

East-Goth state 490 Roman province of Italy and Illyria. 

Sixth Centuky. 
Lombard state 568 Roman province of Italy. 

This table show.* that all Germanic states, except the Lombard, were founded in the 5th 
century. 

GERMANIC STATES IN ORDER OF OVERTHROW OR ABSORPTION. 

West-Goth French territory To the Franks A. D. 507 

Burgundian territory To the Franks " 533 

Vandal territory To East-Rome " 534 

^ ^ r. .^ T. ^ i To East-Rome '' 553 

East-Goth Italy 1 rr. xi r . . 

^ ( To tlie Lombards '• 568 

Sueve territory To West-Goth Spain " 585 

West-Goth Spain To the Arabs " 711 

Lombard Italy To the Franks " 774 

It appears from this table that the Germanic states, not conquered by the Arabs or by East- 
Rome, were all absorbed by the Franks except the Anglo-Saxon states in England. 

Two Germanic states were overthrown by East-Rome, the Vandals and East-Goths. But 
the East-Goth state, conquered by Justinian, was soon yielded to the Lombards, except the 
Exarchate of Ravenna, which afterward became Church territory, as related, and North Africa, 
conquered by East-Rome from the Vandals, was yielded about a hundred years later to the 
Arabs. 

REVIEW OF GERMAN HISTORY, 400-800 A. D. 

From the foreg-oing- tables it appears that the various streams of German history may 
be conceived as centering a. d. 800 in the Franks, England excepted. The confusion of tribes 



152 GERMANY. 

and of events between Alaric and Charlemagne makes the early history of the Germans diffi- 
cult as to detail. But the essential facts are broad and simple. 

First.— Throughout Western Europe the more or less effete and worn-out populations of 
the Roman period (effete especially in the upper classes, which naturally were most agitated 
and shaken by the storm) were brought in contact with the new blood, vigorous natures, and 
strong wills of the German tribes. A period of barbarism followed the invasions, but its 
vigor partially made up for its lack of refinement. 

Second.— The partial overthrow of Roman temporal power was not accomplished in defi- 
ance or contempt of Roman authority. The habits of soldier-settlement and territorial 
divisions of supreme imperial authority (p. 126), combined with the continued and un- 
shaken power of the emperors of the East (map, p. 140), allowed the greatest changes to be 
made without a contemptuous overthrow of the Roman system. Alaric, Athaulf, Odoacer, 
Theodoric, Clovis— all acknowledged allegiance to the temporal authority of the emperors, 
whose main seat of government had been at Constantinople before any change occurred, and 
still continued there. 

Third.— Although the personal efforts and individual labors of the Roman missionaries 
exceed the power of words and almost exceed the power of imagination, one cannot but be 
struck by the willingness of the German tribes to adopt Christianity, and by the rapidity of 
their conversion. In the confusion of the invasions the Arian heresy was adopted by entire 
tribes, but this heresy disappeared under the ascendency of the Franks. 

A question which cannot be definitely answered relates to the proportion of 
German inhabitants, numerically speaking, settled over Western Europe in the time of the 
German states. Since it is a natural tendency to assume that a Germanic state was entirely 
peopled by Germans, we shall do well to note the following points : 

First.— In Spain, France, and Italy the native population was neither exterminated nor per- 
secuted (contrast England), but it suffered much in numbers and in quality from the confusion 
and disorder of the times. 

Second.— The proportion of the lands taken in possession by Germans was from one- 
third to two-thirds, but as this implies control and ownership simply, it follows that a small 
number of Germans might cover a large expanse of territory. Two hundred thousand West- 
Goth warriors, with women and children, would not very sensibly affect the blood of the 
French and Spanish population which they ruled, and with which they gradually mixed and 
intermarried. The Salic Franks of Belgium, when spread over France, would not very sensibly 
affect the blood of the country by mixture and intermarriage. 

It cannot be denied that an absolutely large, though not relatively large, element of German 
population was transferred to France, Spain, and Italy. Nor can it be denied that it long fur- 
nished the ruling and military caste. The infusion of German words into French, Italian, and 
Spanish is small. This is significant at least for the rapid amalgamation of the Genuan 
element. 

Beginnings of the Feudal System.— The fidelity of the Germans to a chosen mili- 
tary chief in the early times of the invasions has been mentioned (p. 140). This chief might 
be head either of an entire tribe or of a band of followers only, and it is probable that much 
of the confusion of tribal names (there were very many not mentioned in this book) resi;lts 
from the habit of naming each band of followers under a separate chief, without reference to 
blood relationship. In some cases it was customary for the immediate followers of the chief 
to sacrifice their own lives at his death. The chief shared with them his possessions, they 
lived on his bounty and depended on his fortunes. 



THE FEUDAL SrSTEM. 153 

The relation of personal fidelity between followers aud chieftain was naturally 
weakened when, after settlement in the newly conquered countries, they ceased to be 
attached to his person. They were separated from the chief by the gifts of land which he 
made them. They held these lauds, not as absolute property (in theory everything belonged 
to the chief), but on condition of military service as before. Only being now locally separated 
from the chief, they tended to become locally independent. 

It was also natural that the father should pass his estate to the son, and the principle of 
hereditary inheritance of the lands loaned by the chief, in return for military service, gradually 
became general. (The Germans call the feudal system the " lend system " or " loan system.'") 
Thus there was in the Middle Age a theory of absolute dependence of the followers on the 
chief ; of absolute ownership on the part of the chief of the lands of the estate. But the prac- 
tice depended on circumstances, on locality, alliances, good will, strength or weakness. 
Above all, the fact of hereditary transmission of the loaned estate involved contradictions 
with the theory of absolute dependence on the feudal sovereign. This is why the Middle 
Age is such a chaos when we descend to details. 

The followers became the harons, the chief became the king-.— The rela- 
tions were always in contention and always undergoing individual variations of countless 
color and circumstance. But the theory of fidelity, which, as regards kings and barons, was 
often only a theory, was carried down by the barons to their dependents. And here it was 
really a bond both of theory and of fact, because local association gave it strength. So also 
the system of considering all property as loaned was extended to the dependents of the baron, 
who held land under him. and from these dependents even to the serfs of the soil. 

The relations of the dependents and serfs to the barons were not as harsh as 
may be imagined. Complaints of the lower orders against the feudal system were not general 
until the lords were divorced from their estates and called to the courts of the kings in modern 
times. Then the want of humanizing personal contact between master and servant and the 
demand for money to make display at court, changed the relations to one of mercenary interest 
and speculation. But the chivalry of the Middle Age did not live to make money. 

There was no absolutely controlling- royal power possible under the feudal sys- 
tem. Disputes between barons and knights were settled by personal conflict-the right of 
private war. This system of legalized petty warfare was fatal to commercial interests. But, 
on the other hand, fighting was not generaUy done for pay. The poor and lowly were not in- 
volved, as now, in the quarrels of the great, and the risks of war fell on those who waged it. 

In the development of the feudal system the history of France and Germany 
offers a remarkable contrast. The great ^' fiefs " or loaned estates became hereditary in France, 
in the century of Charlemagne (under Charles the Bald, about 877). On the other hand, the 
great fiefs did not become altogether hereditary in Germany until after 1254 (close of the 
Hohenstaufen period). But at this time, in France, the power of the modem monarchy had 
already begun to replace the isolated independence of feudal baronies. Therefore, the history 
of France presents a clearer unity of development in the latter Middle Age, while the history 
of Germany is more connected and clear in its early period. 

For this reason, and also because the theory of the empire created by Charlemagne con- 
tinued to exercise most important influence on Germany, and soon failed to exert any influ- 
ence at all on France, the history of Germany after Charlemagne is continued in this book 
till 1500, before taking up Medieval France. 

The Crusades, m which all Christendom took part, are reserved for treatment in connection 
with France, which took the largest share in them. 



154 



GERMANY. 




THE ROMAN-GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

Charlemagne, 768-814, was crowned at Rome in 800 a. d., as 
Emperor of the West, by Pope St. Leo III. This revival of the 
Western Empire was based on the severance by 
the Popes of their temporal relations to the East- 
ern Emperors and on the desertion of the West 
by these Emperors. It was based also on the 
fact that Charlemagne was master of nearly as 
large an area, exceptmg Africa, as the Roman 
Empire of the West formerly contained. He had 
conquered Spain to the Ebro, and he ruled over 
Italy (replacing the Lombards). To the Frankish territory in 
France and South Germany (p. 149) he added Austria proper and 
all North Germany to the Elbe. 

Map Explanation. — A map of modern Germany must be compared with map for the 
Empire of Charlemagne. Beyond the Elbe there were then no Germans, because their migra- 
tions toward the west had given place to Slavonic tribes, as 
far as the Elbe, and in Bohemia. The later course of events 
pushed back the Slavonic race in the north to its present bor- 
der—the western line of Prussian Poland. 

The whole of North Germany, to the Elbe, was peopled by 
Saxons, and was then called Saxony. The name was afterwards 
confined to much narroAver limits. 



A Coin of Charle 
magne. 




The most important event of Cliarlemagiie's 
career was his conquest and conversion of the Saxons. 
But his whole life was one of noble toil and arduous 
effort. 

The Germanic settlement of Austria 
(proper) was made possible by the conquest and dis- 
persal of the descendants of the Huns. These had 
been settled in Hungarv and were called Avars. 

Administration. — Over his immense territories 
the energetic administration of the Frankish emperor kept in force the uni- 
form system of laws which he had framed. His zeal for learning sought out 
and protected its professors. Among these the name of the English scholar 
Alcuin (Alquin) is especially distinguished. Embassies from East-Rome, and 



Military Costume. Ninth 
Century. From Ancient 
MS., Paris Library. 



TKe i.iirpii'e of 

aitcL its drvTsxQiL 
iiv843. 

JJtnf'trT of Chctflt mtiyrn: T^eJ, 
Nyzantim F^mprre yellutv 

Calipli^ie of'Jfagilaci ifreen 
Caliphate of Cordoi^itLiffMfi-txti 




THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 155 

from the Arabian caliph Haroun al Raschid, paid honor to his greatness. " He 
cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the principles of the Christian 
religion. Hence it was that he built the beautiful basilica at Aix la-Chapelle, 
which he adorned with gold and silver, and with rails and doors of solid 

brass When he discovered that there were Christians living in poverty 

in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Carthage, he had 
compassion on their wants and used to send money over sea to them. He 
cherished the Church of St. Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other sacred 
and holy places, and heaped its treasury with a vast wealth of gold, silver and 
precious stones. He sent great and countless gifts to the Foipes."— Eginhaj'd's 
{contemporary) Life {published in Harper's Half -hour Series). 

Louis the Pious, 814-840, succeeded his father Charlemagne. 
But only the hand of the great Emperor himself could wield the 
sceptre of such a territorial empire in such an age. jS^'or was it 
necessary that this territorial empire should continue. The Saxons 
had heen brought within the pale of Christian civilization, the Mo- 
hammedans had been pushed back in Spain, Central and Western 
Europe had been united by similar laws ; but the national characters 
were too different, the age too violent, and the empire too large for 
permanent rule by a single sovereign. Charlemagne's work was in 
no sense lost because his territories were divided by the sons of 
Louis the Pious in the Treaty of Verdun. 

By the treaty of Verdun, 843, the theory of the common 
empire was retained, and thus Lothuir, the eldest son, was given 
with the title of emperor the central division, as containing the two 
capitals of Aix-la-Chapelle and Rome. This division comprised 
Italy and the territory corresponding to modern Switzerland, Savoy, 
Alsace, Lorraine (named from Lothair Lotharingia, whence Lor- 
raine), Belgium, and Holland. Above the border of Italy this terri- 
tory has ever since been the debatable ground between France and 
Germany. The existence of these two latter countries as separated 
territories is dated from 843, Charles the Bald taking France, Louis 
the German retaining Germany, which he had already ruled for ten 
years as his father's deputy. 



156 GERMANY. 

liOthair died in 855. After the death of a sou, Lothair II., 8T0, his inheritance in 
Northern Europe was divided between his uncles, while Italy passed to a younger son of 
Lothair II.— Louis II.— with title of emperor. (Treaty of Meersen, a town on the Meuse.) 
Louis II. died, 875, without heirs. The Imperial title was then held in succession by 
the two surviving brothers of the first Lothair— viz., Louis the German (died 876). and Charles 
the Bald (died 877). Louis the German was succeeded by sons named in the Table. One of 
these, Charles the Pat, reunited for one year, 888, the territories of Charlemagne, and 
was then deposed for incompetency. For Italy had been overrun by the Saracens, France 
by the Normans, Germany by the Slavonians, ami against these enemies nothing had been 
accomplished. A final division of Charlemagne's territories was then made, in which 
France and Germany retained mainly the dimensions of the Treaty of Verdun, but the portion 
of Lothair was broken up into subordinate governments— Lorraine, Upper and Lower Bur- 
gundy, and Italy— all more or less loosely connected with the Imperial rule, which passed in 
title to the sovereigns of Germany under Otto the Great. There was meantime no recognized 
emperor. The German sovereigns began to assert the most important place in European 
history after the opening of the 10th century. The German line of Charlemagne ended here 
in 911, but continued to linger in France till 987. The French Carloviugians descend from 
Charles the Bald. 

Map Study.— See map for the Empire of Charlemagne for Verdun and the divisions of 
its treaty. Compare this map with a modern map of Europe especially for the territories of 
Lothair named above. 

CARLOVINGIAN RULERS OF GERMANY. 

Pepin A. D. 768t 

Cliarlemagne " 814f 

Louis the Pious, son of the foregoing " 840f 

Louis the German, son of the foregoing " 876f 

Karlmann, J ( " ^SOf 

Louis the Younger, V sons of the foregoing < " 882t 

Charles the Fat, deposed ) ( " 888 

Arnulf, nephew of the foregoing " 899f 

Louis the Child, son of the foregoing " 911f 

The first three sovereigns named ruled Germany as one portion of the entire Frankish state. 
A cross indicates the year of death. 



TENTH CENTURY. 

Conrad of Franconia was elected king by the German princes 
in 911, and was succeeded in 918 by Henry I. the Fowler, the 
first of the celebrated 8axon line. 

With his son, Otto I. the Great, 930-973, the empire of 




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divided iaiho Dnciijes 
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TENTH CF. NTUHY. 15? 

(!liarlemagiio, iiltliou;^Hi now l;i(^kiii<j; in IciTilorijil cxloiil llic KrciK.'h 
provinces, was otherwise! (;onliini(!(l and cww in(;r(jas(!(l. Iljily was 
an ini])orlant ])oi-li()n o!" it. 

Map Explanation.— (For (ho following mallear a map of modern Franco nliould bo com- 
pared wiili Miul Ibr Olio the (Jroat.) From the urea of modern France; w(! miiHt Hcparatf; at, 
this time the whohj valley of the Rhone and Haoiie, including th(! modern French provinceH of 
Provence, Daiipliine, Havoy, Burgundy, and Fianche-Comt6. Thewe territoriew of the old Hur- 
giindian state, then divided into Uppei- and Lower I'.ur^'undy, wen; not included in France, and 
a little later than the time of Otto I. (in 1(W2) thej wen; included in the Fmpire. Alnacr", 
Lorraine, Switzerland, and the Nctherlandn, all belonged to thiw (Jerinanic em|)ire. Italy waw 
also included in it. Its 8overei[,'nty wa.s acknowledged by Denmark, Poland, IJohemia, and 
Homevvhat later by Hungary. 

Coronation. — Otto ilio Oroat, was orownod at, lioiru! l)y t,ho 
Pope, as Ciiarlcinaf^iK! liad boon, and from liis tJino tdic (jforrrnui 
sovereigns esiablislied a sort: of presc'ri[)tj've right. t;o the Imperial 
title. In theory any magnate or sovereign of Europe miglit. he 
crowned "Emperor of tlie West"; in fact, it was always a (;i(!rman 
sovereign who gained this distinction. When there was no liered- 
itary heir, the Grerman sovereign was elected by the German princes. 
In either case, after consecration by the Pope, he was Emperor of 
Christendom in theory, and of a largf ))art of it in faet. 

There were three lines of German emperors—tlie Saxon, 
Franconian, and Hohenstaufen, under whom tliis ideal of the 
empire, as conceived by Chai'lemagne and restored by Otto I., was 
upheld, in general with dignity and success, until the middle of the 
13th century. 

The Germanic character of this "Holy Roman Empire," as it is 
called, is best comprehended by remembering that Charlemagne 
himself was a German Frank, habitually si)eaking German ; that he 
had proposed the compilation of a (German grammar, and had made 
a collection of the German folk-songs. TFis residences of Ingelheim 
(westof Mayence) and of Aix-la-Chapelle were both on German soil. 
By the female line, the Saxon House was descended from him. 

The succeeding Saxon emperors were Otto II., Otto III., 
and Ileiirv II. 



158 



G E R IVI ANY 



Hungary was occupied, in the 9th century, by the ancestors of the modern 
Hungarians, tlieu wandering nomads from Asia. Plact> luid been made for 
them here by Charlemagne's dispersal of the Avars. The Hungarians were the 
scourge of Germany till the decisive victories won by Henry I, near Mersebur^r 

in Saxony, and by Otto the (ircat 
on the Lechfeld near Augsburg. 
They became converts to Christi- 
anity under the famous Pope Syl- 
vester II. soon after 1000. This 
Pope had been, under tlie name 
of (Jerbert, \hc tutor of Otto HI. 
The Slavonian Bohe- 
mians and Poles were Chris- 
tiani/ed generally in the time of 
Otto the (ireat, and largely in 
consequence of his exertions. 
He spared no efforts to exalt the 
Church and to advance; the Cath- 
olic faith. It was this sovereign, 
also, Avho s(*cured the conversion 
of the Danisli king Harold. 

From the Danes Henry I. 
had already conquered and Ger- 
numized the province of Sles- 
wick. 

From the Slavonians 
beyond the Elbe Henry I. took the Duchy of Brandenburg, the territory about 
Berlin, and cohmized it with Germans. All the Ottos were distinguished by 
efforts to introduce the Byzantine civilization into Germany. 

Map Study.-For Merseburg, the Lechleld, Braiulenburg-sce map for Otto the Great. 
See modern map for Sleswick. Spcyer, Worms and Mayeuce are on the Rhine. 




Hi 11. 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 

The last Saxon Emperor, Henry II., was canonized by the 
Obiiivli. ^riie line caUiearal at Bamberg, in modern Bavaria, was 
erected by him. The great cathedrals of Speyer, Worms, and May- 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 



159 




Cathedral of Worms, 11th Century. 



euce, the finest in Europe of their time, also represent the glories 
of the Germanic empire in this period. 

The succeeding line of 
German emperors is called the 
Franconian. 

In earjy German history Saxony, 
meaning the country of tlie Saxons, com- 
prised all North Germany as far as the 
Slavonians beyond the Elbe. Franconia 
was the name of Central Germany, lying 
between Saxony on the nortli, and Suabia 
and Bavaria on the south. It was bounded 
on the northeast by the Thuringian forest, 
on tlic southeast by Bavaria, on the west 
by Lotharingia or Lorraine 

Under Conrad II. was 

added to the empire, 1032, 
the Burgundian kingdom, 
whose extent has been out- 
lined, p. 157. 

Under Henry III., a powerful and active sovereign, Hungary 
also acknowledged the imperial authority. It was during this reign 
that the poems of the Mbelungen, the great work of German 
medieval literature, began to take the shape in which they have 
been handed down. They are based on the adventures and myths 
of the times of the German invasions. No individual author is 
known. 

The glories of the Holy Roman Empire were at their height 
when France was still a chaos of warring baronies, and England a 
comparatively barbarian country. 

It was in the reign of Henry IV., 1056-1106, that the first 
downward step was taken. His tutor, when a young man, had been 
the monk Hildebrand, with whom, as the celebrated Pope Gregory 
VII., the emperor came in conflict. The right of nominating 
bishops was claimed by the German sovereign and denied by the 
Pope— the famous struggle about "Investitures." With Henry IV. 



160 GERMANY. 

it was a question of power, of influence, and of money. With 
Gregory VII. it was a question of principle. Henry was excom- 
municated. Unable to maintain his influence under this punish- 
ment, he knelt for three days in the snow, clothed in penitential 
garb, before the gates of the castle of Canossa, in the ]^orthern Apen- 
nines, until absolution was accorded him, 1077. He did not, how- 
ever, yield in good faith, and his son Henry Y. also continued to 
antagonize the papal authority on this point. 

The great importance attaching- to this controversy rested on the danger 
which threatened the Church if its dignities were bestowed as political and temporal prefer- 
ments, and on the immense power and territories of the Germanic Empire in which this usur- 
pation was attempted. 

The opposition of Imperial authority to the Papal, under the two last Franco- 
nians, ultimately led to the downfall of the emperors. The results of the struggle were imme- 
diately apparent in the access of power which the determined attitude of Gregory VII. secured for 
the Church. Under Gregory's immediate successors began the period of the Crusades, in 
which the Popes were politically the arbiters and directors of the destinies of Europe. 

The First Crusade was undertaken in 1096, ten years before the death of Henry IV. ; but 
the share of Germany in the movement was much less than that of Prance, and the influence 
of the Crusades on after history is most apparent in this latter country. For this reason the 
Crusades in general are summarized under French history. 

TWELFTH CENTURY. 

At the death of Henry V. without heirs, in 1125, the Hohen- 
staufen family, owning immense territories in Suabia, had counted 
on securing the imperial crown. Frederick of Hohenstaufen had 
married the sister of Henry V., but his ambition was blocked by 
the election of Lothair of Saxony, with the assistance and coalition 
of Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria, who was given in marriage 
Lothair's daughter and heiress. Thus were united in one ftmiily 
the two large Duchies of Saxony (p. 159) and Bavaria. 

The first Hohenstaufen emperor, Conrad III., the son of 
Frederick of Hohenstaufen, secured election as emperor in 1137, 
and finding his authority endangered by so powerful a vassal, de- 
clared the union of two duchies under one head illegal, and outlawed 
Henry the Proud. This duke died a year later, leaving an infant son 
named Henry the Lion. The civil war begun by Henry the Proud 



T W E L F T H C E N T U R Y . 161 

after outlawry, was contiiuied in behalf of the son by his uncle, Welf 
of Bavaria. At the battle of Weinsberg, 1140, wxre first heard the 
battle-cries of Welf (Velf) and Waiblingen (Vaiblingen). 

" After the battle the long-besieged city of Weinsberg was obliged to yield. The emperor, 
irritated by its long resistance, had resolved to destroy it with fire and sword. He, however, 
permitted the females of the city previously to retire and to carry with them their dearest 
jewels. And behold, when the day dawned and the gates were opened, the women advanced 
in long rows, and the married bore each upon her back her husband, and the others each their 
dearest relative. This aflecting scene so moved the emperor, that he not only spared the men, 
but also the whole city.'''— (Kohlrausch, Hutory of Germany.) 

Gruelphs and Ghibellines. — Waiblingen was a castle of the 
Hohenstaufeus, and Welf the family name of their antagonists. 
Hence the designations used in Italy of " Guelphs," and "Ghibel- 
lines," applied to the Anti-Imperial or Papal and the Imperial 
parties (but finally used in the Italian civic quarrels of later cen- 
turies when this sense of the terms had utterly disappeared). 

The Italians were growing weary of the constant pouring of 
German armies into Italy to assert the territorial rights of the em- 
perors. Each new coronation at Rome — and the emperor at this 
time was always crowned there — was the signal for the disorderly 
march through Italy of a German host. The towns of Lombardy 
which were most exposed in locality to the Imperial exactions, 
resolved to assert their freedom, and the Roman Pontiffs favored 
their aspirations for liberty. The father of Italian independence of 
Germany was Pope Alexander III. 

The revolt of the Lombard towns took place under the 
great Frederick I. (Barbarossa), 1152-1190, the second Hohenstaufen 
emperor. He made six campaigns in Italy, meeting decisive de- 
feat in the battle of Legnano. Compelled to acknowledge himself 
worsted, he knelt to kiss the foot of Pope Alexander HI. before the 
Church of St. Mark's in Venice. The stone on which Barbarossa 
knelt is still shown. 

Henry the Lion (p. 160), at first his friend and ally, then his 
opponent, was therefore deprived of his possessions, with the ex- 
ception in *' Saxony" of Luneburg and Brunswick — the foundation 



162 GERMANY. 

of the later state of Hanover. Thus Henry the Lion was the an- 
cestor of the Gnelphs of Hanover^ the line to which the reigning 
English sovereign belongs. 

Barbarossa was an efficient sovereign and brave knight, but 
his reign marks the time when the emperors lost their power in 
Italy. He died on the Third Crusade, 1190. It was long a German 
tradition that their greatest emperor was not really dead — that he 
was slumbering with his knights in a mountain cave, and that be 
would one day return to restore the glories and power of the past. 

Henry VI., his son, apparently sustained the Italian prestige of 
the emperors by marriage with the Xorman heiress of Xaples and 
Sicily. 

Map Study.— For anion of '' Saxouy" and Bavaria see these provinces on map for Otto 
the Great. Weiusberg, Legnano, Venice— same map. See map of " Eiirope in 1713"* for 
Brunswick-Lnneberg. See map of '"Europe during the 12th Century"' for Norman kingdom 
of Naples and Sicily. Suabia, same map. 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

Frederick II., 1208-1250, thus inherited the wliole of South 
Italy, as personal territory, beside Suabia. But the policy of antag- 
onism to Italian independence, and to the Popes as representatives 
of this ideal, ended in the downfall of the Hohenstaufens soon after 
the end of the reign which had witnessed such large addition to 
their family power. Frederick II. died in 1250. His son Conrad 
IV. died in 1254, leaving an infant heir, Conradin. 

Charles of Anjou (Ong-jou), brother of the French king 
Louis IX., was called into Italy by Pope Clement IV., to combat 
the Hohenstaufen regent of Sicily, Manfred. With the defeat and 
death of Manfred, 1266, and of the youthful Conradin in 1268, 
ended at once the House of Hohenstaufen and the glories of the 
Holy Roman Empire. 

Since its foundation by Charlemagrne in 800 it had lasted 450 year?. Although 
shorn of its greatness, the " Empire " continued to exist in theory till 1806. when it was abol- 
ished by Buonaparte, who, however, once more conceived himself as heir of Charlemagne in 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY 



163 



his own title of emperor. The history of Germany after 1354 ib determined by the continued 
union in one prince of two different offices, namely, that of German sovereign and of emperor 
of Christendom. The struggle against this sovereign as an emperor so weakened his power 
as a king in later history, that Germany did not achieve its national unity until the 19th 
century. 



RULERS OF GERMANY FROM 911 TO 1254. 
Conrad I., the Franconian A. d. 918f "j 



SAXON LINE. 



Henry I. . 

Otto I., sou of foregoing- 

Otto n., " 

Otto III., " 

Henry H., ^rand-neplien- of foregoing 



936t ^ 

973t 

983f 
1002t ; 
1024t ^ 



FRANCONIAN LINE. 



Conrad II 

Henry III., son of foregoing 

Henry IV., 

Henry V., " 

Lothair tlie Saxon 



10391 I 
1056f I 

1125f 
1137t 



sons of foregoing. 






1152t I 



HOHENSTAUFEN LINE. 

Conrad HI 

Frederick I. (Barbarossa), grandson of foregoing. . 

Henry VI., 

Philip of Suabia, 

Frederick II., son of Henry VI 

Conrad IV., sou of foregoing. . . 

Otto IV., rival emperor. 

Thirteenth Century Continued.— Between 1254 and 1272 no emperor was elected. 
Richard of Cornwall, brother of Edward I. of England, and a Castilian prince, were both 
suitors for the title. This shows that there was no legal connection between German royalty 
and the title of emperor, which it so invariably secured. 

The fall of the Hohenstaufens was followed by an immediate development in Germany of 
the feudal independence for which the great nobles had so long been aspiring, and the history 
of the country becomes broken and chaotic through this development of feudalism at the 
moment when France was developing unity and national power. After 1272 the princes took 




164 



GERMANY, 



care to select an emperor who, from smallness of his estates or other reasons, was not con- 
sidered a dangerous enemy to their feudal independence. Thus, instead of a direct territorial 

authority over Italy and the whole of Germany, with 
'S^f^/'^F> some sort of influence over Hungary, Bohemia, Po- 

, ( ^"^vS^ land, and Burgundy, the Imperial office did not even 

convey a sovereignty over Germany. It became an 
engine for the personal aggrandizement of the individ- 
ual prince, whose family heirs might become (and 
often did become) themselves feudal opponents of an- 
other emperor. 

Rudolf of Hapsburg, a man of 

character but with relatively small pos- 
sessions, was thus elected emperor in 
1273. He owned territories in Swit- 
zerland adjacent to the Castle of Haps- 
burg, with some possessions in what is 
now Southern Baden and in Alsace. 
Otto car of Bohemia, also ruler of Ger- 
man Austria (Austria proper is the ter- 
ritory of which Vienna is the immediate capital), contested the 
election. Eudolf worsted him, and confiscated German Austria 
for his own family possessions. 

Map study.— See Western Europe about 1400, p. 200. 

Thus the House of Hapsburg became the House of Austria, with possessions including 
Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola, to which the Tyrol was afterward added. But Hungary and 
Bohemia, the largest part of the modern Austrian Empire, were not acquired till after 1500. 
For original Hapsburg territory in Switzerland, Baden, and Alsace, see map for Europe about 
1400. For addition of Austria, see the same map. Carinthia, Styria, Carniola, the Tyrol ; the 




Rudolf of Hapsburg. 



When Rudolf was crowned no sceptre was at hand. He removed the difficulty by 
snatching up a crucifix, saying, "A symbol by which the world was redeemed may well sup- 
ply the place of a sceptre." He was distinguished by indifference to personal appearances, and 
did not hesitate to wear an inferior cloak, and to repair, with his own hand, his doublet. This 
was made a subject of merriment by Ottocar of Bohemia, who was compelled, after his defeats, 
to sue for pardon of the emperor attired in this very costume. 



* Portrait-statue above the portal of Strassburg Cathedral. 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 1G5 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 

The story of William Tell belongs to the time of Albert of Austria, 
the son of Rudolf. The feat of shooting an apple from a child's head is related, 
in a Danish chronicle, of a freebooter living some time before William Tell. 
But it is quite certain, at least, that a revolt of the Swiss cantons, Uri, Schwyz, 
and Unterwalden, against the Hapsburgs, was caused by the oppressions of the 
bailiflf Gessler. 

The later Swiss confederation dates its existence from this time. 
Lucerne soon after joined the three cantons named, making the "Four Forest 
Cantons." Before 1353, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne had joined the league. 

In 1386 the Hapsburgs, endeavoring to recover some of their Swiss terri- 
tory, were defeated at Sempach, mainly by the heroic self-sacriiice of Arnold 
von Winkelried, who clasped the enemies' spears in his arms, and thus, by 
offering up his life, opened a gap in their ranks for his comrades. 

Map Study.— For the Swiss cantons named, see modern map of Switzerland. For Sam- 
pach, see map of Europe about 1400. 

Henry VII. of Luxemburg is the emperor celebrated by the 
contemporary Italian poet Dante. Although a prince of small pos- 
sessions, he strove to Uve np to his title. The marriage of his son 
John with the Princess Elizabeth, heiress of Bohemia, founded the 
important House of Luxemburg-Bohemia. 

Charles IV. of tliis line estabhshed the " Golden Bull,*' by 
which the right of choosing the emperor was legally fixed where 
custom had devolved it — on seven electoral princes. This mode of 
election was made necessary by the tumultuary elective meetings of 
earlier times. At the election of Lothair the Saxon, for instance, 
sixty thousand knights and barons entitled to vote had been 
present. 

The seven electors were tlie King of Bohemia, the Princes of 
Brandenburg, of Saxony, and of the Palatinate, and the Arch- 
bishops of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne. The jurisdiction of the 
princes was made independent of appeal to the emperor. Thus was 
formally established the territorial independence of the feudal Ger- 
man states. In all ways the reign of Charles IV. marks the recog- 



166 GERMANY. 

nition of the now purely titular ciiaracter of the Imperial office, his 
activity as a sovereign being almost entirely confined to his own 
Bohemian kingdom. Here he created, at Prague, the first German 
university. 

Map Study.—" Europe about 1400," the seven Electorates are underscored. The Palatinate 
included territory on the Rhine, at the mouth of the Neckar (Heidelberg), and on the opposite 
West-Ehiue bank. The Upper Palatinate corresponds to the northern part of modern Bavaria. 
Large territories on the Rhine and Moselle belonged to the Archbishoprics of Mayence, Treves, 
and Cologne. 

MAP EXPLANATION. 

Dauphine.— Charles rv^. abandoned, in 1347. the Imperial rights of supremacy over South- 
eastern France— the "Biirguntly" of map for Europe during the 12th century. These rights 
were granted to the French crown-prince John, who had inherited at this time the over-lord- 
ship of Dauphine, and thus united it with the French crown. The title of " Dauphin," corre- 
sponding to that of the " Prince of Wales," and given to the oldest son of the King of France, 
was derived from the acquisition of tliis province. Compare map for Europe about 1400. 

Luxembiirg'-Boheinia.— See map for Europe about 1400 for Luxemburg (colored blue, 
the territory above Lorraine). With the Bohemian territories are included Silesia and Bran- 
denburg. 

Union of Hungrary with Luxemburgr-Bohemia.— Sigismund, son of Charles IV., 
married Maria, heiress of Hungaiy, and was crowned king in 1387. Hence the union of Hun- 
gary and Bohemia (so important for later history of Austria). Shakespeare has been derided by 
English critics for ignorance of history in providing " Bohemia " with sea-ports— observe the 
map. 

FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

As emperor after 1410, Sigismund conferred on the House 
of Hohenzollern the territory of Brandenburg, where this family was 
established in 1417. The original home of the HohenzoUerns was 
a small territory, still owned by them, in the southwest corner of 
Wurtemberg. The family gained the title of Counts of Nurnberg 
under Henry VI., with possession of the neighboring territories of 
Anspach and Baireuth, in modern Bavaria. With the acquisition of 
Brandenburg (capital Berhn) begins the rise of the modern kingdom 
of Prussia, still ruled by the HohenzoUerns. Their territory of 
Brandenburg has always remained the central province and heart 
of this kingdom. The name "Prussia" is derived from an out- 
lying province acquired at a later date. 



FIFTEENTH C E N IMJ R Y 



10? 



Map Study.— For Hohenzollem see map for •'Europe about 1400.'" For territories of 



Anspach and Baireutli, see map for "'Europe in 1550. 
parte and Prussia was occasioned by his marching 
through Anspach and Baireuth, instead of stopping 
to go around them, when on his way to the victory 
of Austerlitz.) For Hohenzollerns in Brandenburg, 
see map for 1550. Compare with map for 1400. 

After Sigismund, the Imperial 
title reverted to the Hapsburgs. 
The reign of Frederick III. lasted 
nearly half a century. His own 
Austrian dominions were small, his 
character and life quite narrow, and 
the exercise of the sovereign rights 
over German}^, implied in his title, 
were almost absolutely in abeyance. 
But this emperor was father of a 



(The war of 1S06 between Bona- 




Maximilian I. 
{From an old Wood-cut.) 



famous SOD, who gave a fresh impulse to tbe 
pretensions and also to the power of the 
emperors. 

This son was Maximilian I., a knightly 
and energetic character. He succeeded his 
father in 1493. 

His grandson and successor, the Em- 
peror Charles V., is the most important sov- 
ereign — in character, possessions, and influence — 
of the 16th century. But the dimensions and 
history of his empire presuppose a knowledge of 
Italy, of France, and of Spain, as well as of Ger- 
many. For this reason the history of each of 
these other countries is carried down to the year 
1500, before entering on the 16th century and the 

period of Charles V. The most important part of Maximilian's rei^ also 

belongs to the 16th century. 




German Knight of Masl 

milian's Time. 

{From an old Wood-cut.') 



168 



GERMANY 



RULERS OF GERMANY FROM 1273 TO 1500. 

Rudolf of Hapsburg A. D. 

Adolf of Nassau " 

Albert of Austria, a Hapsburg and sou of Rudolf " 

Henry VII., of Luxemburg " 

Frederick of Austria ; a Hapsburg, son of Albert " 

Rival Emperor, Louis of Bavaria " 

Charles IV. of Luxemburg-Boliemia " 

Wenceslaus. of Luxemburg-Bohemia, liis son, deposed " 

Rupert of the Palatinate. " 

Sigismund of Luxemburg-Bohemia, son of Charles IV " 

Albert II., of Austria, a Hapsburg " 

Frederick III., of Austria, a Hapsburg " 

Maximilian, son of foregoing " 



1298t '^O 
1308t 1 
131 3t 
1330f 
1347f 
1378t 
1400 
1410f j 
1437t ! I ^ 
1439ti|| 
1493tj|^ 
15191 J 






ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF GERMAN MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

Teutonic Knights and 
first settlement of Prussia. 
—This province, which, united 
at a later date with the territory 
of Brandenburg, transferred its 
name to the whole territory 
of the Hohenzollerns, lies in the 
extreme northeastern corner of 
modern Germany, on the Vistula 
and its tributaries. (Map for 
"Europe about 1400.'') It was 
inhabited until the 13th century 
exclusively by barbarian Slavo- 
nians. 
'T'i I' 'i filiSw''' ^ ^ It' f^ PsI] fK popg Innocent III. created the 

\m I IH I ill I illlr^TO ^ ^ J j| first bishop of Prussia soon after 

1200. He was supported and assist- 
ed by the Teutonic Knights, a cru- 
sading order headed by Hermann 
von Salza, who colonized and Ger- 
manized the province. 

The Mongols.— In the reign 
of Frederick II. the Mongols, hav- 
ing conquered under Dschingis 
Khan nearly the whole of Asia, invaded Europe. They defeated a German army 




Cuiugut Cathedi il Inteuoi 



(Gingis) 



MEDIEVAL HISTOEY 



169 



in 1241 at Liegnitz (Leegnitz) in Silesia, but retired before a continued show of firm resistance. 
They continued to occupy Russia, as related under this heading. 

The Hansa.— After the middle of the 14th century the most important power of North 
Germany was the league of the Hansa towns, which controlled the commerce of Northern 
Europe, and even waged successful war as an independent power on Denmark. Among the 
most important cities of this league were Liibeck, Wismar (Vismar), Eostock, Stralsund, Bre- 
men, Hamburg, Cologne, Dant- 
zic, Koeuigsberg, Wisby, Eiga, 
Reval and Dorpat. 

The Cathedrals. — We 
are not to suppose, from the 
chronicles of the Imperial title 
and the weakness of German 
sovereigns in the later Middle 
Age, that the period after the 
Hohenstaufens was insignifi- 
cant in Germany. It is the 
time of the rise and greatness 
of the Free Cities. They have 
written their own history, here 
and all over Europe, on the 
Gothic cathedrals, which be- 
long to this period and repre- 
sent its greatness. The Gothic 
Style, borrowed from France, 

developed in Germany after 

the middle of the 13th century 

and lasted till after 1500. 

The early Christian churches 

borrowed their forms from the 

Roman Basilica (Business Exchange) and from the Eoman Baptisteries or Baths. Basilica types 

are represented at pp. 123, 137, 147. The Baptistery was a dome structure ; types at pp. 

114, 135. 

After 1000 the Eomanesque Style ; types at pp. 158, 159 ; developed by combining the 

dome with the basilica form of the cross. The dome was placed over the junction of nave 

and transept, and the buildings were vaulted over with arched ceiUngs of brick or stone. 

The Gothic developed from the Romanesque by increasing all dimensions and especially 

the height. The pointed or Gothic arch was first introduced to attain greater stability of the 

heavy ceilings at such immense altitudes. Combined with these immense dimensions was a 

lightness of construction which required the support of the exterior Gothic buttress; types at 

pp. 168, 169, 189, and in many later illustrations. 




Cologne Cathedral, begun 1248. View of the Choir. 



170 GERMANY. 

CHRONOLOGY OF GERMAN MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 
4tll Century. — Christianity begins to spread among the German tribes. 

5th Century. — German Invasions. 

Overthrow of the West-Roman Empire in 476. 

6th. Century. — Spread of the Franks and Lombards in France and Italy. 

7th Century. — x\nglo-Saxons christianized. 

8th Century.— Poitiers, 732. 

Mayors of the Palace overshadow the Merovingian kings, 
and found the Carlovingian^line under Pepin, 752. 

9th Century.— The Empire of Charlemagne. 
Treaty of Verdun, 843. 



10th Century.— Saxon Emperors after 918. 

Otto the Great revives the Imperial ideal of Charlemagne. 



11th Century.— Franconian Emperors after 1024. 

Contest of Henry IV. and Gregory VII. about Investitures. 



12th Century.— Hohenstauf ens after 1137. 

Lombard towns throw off the yoke of the German Emperors. 
The Hohenstaufen Henry VI., acquires Naples and Sicily. 

13th Centliry.- Fall of the Ilohenstaufens and decline of the "Empire." 
Rudolf of Hapsburg. 



14th Century.— The House of Luxemburg-Bohemia founded. 
Southeastern France abandoned, 1347. 
The Golden Bull, 1356. 



15th Century.— The Hohenzollems established in Brandenburg, 1417. 

Imperial title continues in the Hapsburg line after 1439. 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. i;i 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON GERMAN HISTORY BEFORE 1500. 

FIRST EEVIEW LESSOIs^. 

What people reached into Germany as far as the Elbe in the early Middle Age ? (P. 154.) 
Why? 

Who occupied Hungary before the time of Charlemagne ? (P. 154.) 

Who subdued the Avars ? 

Who made possible the German settlement of Austria proper ? 

What important possessions of modern Austria did not belong to this State before 1500 ?— 
Ans., Bohemia and Hungary. 

What were the relations of Bohemia, Poland and Hungary to the Empire in the time of the 
Saxon emperors? (P. 157.) 

What emperor begins the line of Flapsburg in Austria proper ? (P. 164.) 

What provinces were included with this duchy ? (P. 154.) 

With what duchy was Bohemia united in the 14th century ? (P. 165.) 

What part of the possessions of Luxemburg-Bohemia, passed to the House of Hoheuzol- 
lem? (p. 166). When? 

What century saw the HohenzoUems established in North Germany? 

What century saw the Hapsburgs established in Austria? 

When was the Province of Prussia Germanized ? (P. 168.) 



SECOIiTD REVIEW LESSOR. 

Why did the German princes favor the election of weak sovereigns after 1272 ? (P. 164.) 

Who formally established the later electoral method? (P. 165.) 

Where were the great possessions of the Hohenstaufens ? (P. 160.) 

When did their power end ? 

What Hohenstaufen was monarch of Naples and Sicily ? 

How did he inherit Naples and Sicily ? 

Who was called into Italy to combat the heirs of Frederick 11. ? 

In whose reign did the emperors lose in the main their territorial powers over Italy? 
(P. 162.) 

By whose reign was the system of a weak sovereignty in Germany established ? (P. 164 ) 

How did the reigning prince recompense himself for the weakness of sovereign power? 
(P. 164.) 

What House held the Imperial title after Frederick III. till 1806 ? Ans. The Hapsburgs. 
(After 1740 the Hapsbnrg blood passed by the female line through the Empress Maria Theresa, 
who married a Duke of Lorraine. But it is still usual to speak of the present Austrian line 
as that of the Hapsburgs.) 

Was there any necessary connection between the Imperial title and the House of Austria ? 
Ans. No. 

Was there any necessary connection between the Imperial title and the Sovereignty of 
Germany ? (P. 157.) 

What did the title mean ? (P. 157.) 

With whom did it originate ? (P. 154.) 



172 GERMANY. 

THIRD REVIEW LESSON. 

What territories did Charlemagne rule? 
Which did he conquer? (P. 154.) 
Which did he inherit ? (Pp. 148, 149.) 
Who was the father of Charlemagne ? 
Who made Charlemagne emperor ? When ? 
On what basis or theory? 

How long had the Western Empire been in abeyance ? (P. 146.) 
What assistance was rendered the Pope by Pepin ? (P. 150) 

Whose duty was it to protect the Pope from the Lombards ? Ans. The duty of the Emperor 
of East-Eome. 

What was the Exarchate of Ravenna ? (P. 147.) 

To what empire did it belong ? 

How did the schism of the Greek Church begin ? (P. 147.) When ? 

What were the resulting relations of the Popes to the Eastern Empire ? (P. 148.) 

When did the Lombards settle in Italy ? (P. 147.) 

Whose power did they replace ? 

What German power was overthrown in Italy by Justinian's generals ? (P. 146.) 

How long did East-Rome hold all Italy ? (P. 147.) 

How long did it hold the Exarchate ? Ans. Until shortly before 754. (P. 148.) 

Who drove the Lombards out of the Exarchate ? (P. 148.) 

Who subdued the Lombards throughout Italy ? (P. 154.) 

When did the East-Goths enter Italy ? 

Whose rule did they replace ? 

Who became ruler of Italy in 476 ? (P. 146.) 

How long after the death of Theodosius the Great ? (P. 134.) 

How long after Rome was sacked by Alaric ? (P. 143.) 



FOURTH REVIEW LESSOI^. 

Who was Alaric' s successor ? (P. 143 ) 

Who founded the Visigothic State ? (P. 143.) Ans. After Athaulf had led the Visigoths to 
the settlements assigned by Houorius, and had married Galla Placidia, he was assassinated in 
415. He was succeeded by Wallia, who is generally called the founder of the Visigothic state. 

Who overthrew Visigothic power in France ? (P. 148.) 

Who overthrew it in Spain ? (P. 150.) 

When did the Pranks cross the Rhine ? (P. 144.) 

With what companions ? 

What Germanic state was founded in North Africa ? ( P. 144.) 

When established ? (P. 144.) When overthrown ? (P. 147.) 

What replaced it ? (P. 147.) 

Who overthrew the East-Roman power in North Africa ? (P. 150.) 

Who prevented the Mohammedans from conquering France ? (P. 150.) When ? 

Who was the father of Pephi ? (P. 150.) 

When did Clovis begin his reign ? 

Give the successive additions to the Frankish state before 550. (Pp. 148, 149.) 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 173 \ 

FIFTH REVIEW LESSOJT. j 

How long before later additions were made ? (P. 154.) i 

What additions were made by Charlemagne ? 

When was Charlemagne's empire divided ? 

From what time date the beginnings of modern France and Germany ? (P. 155.) 

What territorial power had Lothair in 843 ? 

What territorial power had the Sason emperors ? (P. 157.) 

When was Italy practically lost to the emperors ? (P, 161.) 

When was Germany lost to the emperors as a united state ? (P. 164.) 

When was Germany the strongest state in Europe ? Ans. In the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries. 

What history unites the Roman Empire with later periods? Ans. The preceding Germanic 
history of all Western Europe from the 5th to the 10th century. 

How long a time between Alaric and Charlemagne? And between Charlemagne and Bar- 
barossa ? Between Barbarossa and Rudolf of Hapsburg ? Between Frederick II. and 
Frederick III. ? 

Who was the successor of Frederick III. ? 

Who was the successor of Maximilian I. ? (P. 167.) 

What different countries are involved in a knowledge of the period of Charles the Fifth ? 
(P. 1G7.) 



GENEALOGY CONNECTING THE GERMAN AND FRENCH CARLOVINGIANS. 

FOE REFERENCE IN USING TABLES AT PAGES 156 AND 178. 

Charlemagne. 

+814. 

Louis the Pious. 
+840. 
I 

I I i 

Lothair. Louis the German. Charles the Bald. 

+855. +876. +877. 

- ^ \ . I 

III I II 

Lothair II. Louis II. Kallmann. Louis the Younger. Charles the Fat. Louis II. 

+870. +875. 1880. +882. Deposed, 888. +879. 

I L_ 

Arnulf. I I I 

+899. Louis III. Karlmann. Charles the Simple 

I +882. +884, +929. 

Louis the Child. I 

+911. Louis IV. 

(Extinct.) +954. 

I 

Lothair. 

+986. 

I 

Louis V. 

+987. 
(Extinct.) 



FRANCE, 

TILL A. D. 1500. 



FRANCE IN ITS CELTIC, ROMAN, AND GERMAN PERIODS. 

Celtic Period. — There is a marked distinction of character between the 
Germanic peoples and those of the Celtic race, to which the French, Irish, 
Welsh (Ancient Britons), and Highland Scotch, belong. In opposition to the 
sometimes melanclioly, generally contemplative and mystic, German nature, 
the spirit of the Celtic race was, and is, distinguished by light-hearted gaiety, 
by the cultivation of social graces, and by a more impulsive and spirited 
temper. The mind of tbe German is deep and profound, the mind of the 
Frenchman is logical and clear. A peculiarly valuable trait of the Celtic race 
is the nobility and chivalry of spirit which softens by mutual politeness the 
contrasts of rank, and bridges over by social tact the inequalities of condition. 
Notwithstanding this difference of traits, the Celts are a branch of the one 
original Aryan family from Asia, which also peopled Europe with Germans and 
Slavonians, Greeks and Italians (p. 31). 

In common with these other peoples, the French Celts, as settled in 
Europe before the time of written record, already possessed a moral and social 
family organism, were acquainted witli husbandry, and could by no means be con- 
sidered a barbarous nation. It was also the good fortune of the French Celts, 
unlike the Germans, to have begun their intercourse with Southern Europe at a 
time when its ancient civilization was still vigorous. An important influence 
on French civilization was exercised by the Greek settlement of Marseilles, about 
600 B. c. At a much earlier date Phoenician commerce had brought from Syria 
and from Carthage the luxuries and some of the knowledge of the East. The 
famous monuments found in Celtic countries — immense blocks of stone, erect, 
like those at Stonehenge in England, and forming temple inclosures, or sup- 



CELTIC AND ROMAN FRANCE 



175 




Dolmen near Poitiers, 13 feet long, 3 feet thick. 



ported on other large stones as monumental tombs, called '' cromleaclis " or " dol- 
mens," argue a mechanical science well known to the Phoenicians, and probably 
acquired from them. The caste of 
the Celtic priests called Druids is 
thought to have derived its teach- 
ing from Phoenician religion. 

Besides the early influence 
of Phoenicians and Greeks on 
Gaul (the ancient name of France, 
but including all territory west of 
the Rhine), we must notice the long 
establishment of the Gaids in Italy 
— Cisalpine Gaul. They controlled 
the fertile plains of North Italy for 
centuries. Gallic Italy was not 

definitely conquered by Rome till after the Punic Wars. As mercenary soldiers, 
the Gauls had invaded Southern Italy on many occasions, notably in 390 b. c. 
(p. 81), and they invaded Greece in 290 b. c. This last invading force, after 
leaving Greece traversed Macedonia and Thrace to the Black Sea, sailed across 
it. and settled Galatia in Asia Minor. 

Map Stufly.— The arrangement of reference follows the order of the book. 
Marseilles (Massilia), p. 92. Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina), p. 86 and p. 92. Galatia, 
p. 58 and p. 94. 

The Roman Period. — In recalling the rapid conquest of Gaul by Roman 
civilization after the campaiofns of Julius Caesar, we must remember that its 
southern coast country — Gallia Narbonensis — had then been already Roman 
for three-quarters of a century. 

From the earlier Celtic period we pass then to the Roman period, which 
lasted from 58 b. c. until the states of the West-Goths, Burgundians, and 
Franks (after which latter tribe France is named) — a period of five hundred 
years. For our knowledge of this time, the sections devoted to the Roman 
Empire and its civilization. must be consulted. In common with other provinces 
of the empire, Gaul underwent the moral transformation which the spread of 
Christianity carried with it. The large number of converts already existing 
there in the 2d century is notorious. 

Map Study.— Gallia Narbonensis, p. 92. See on a modern map Narbonne. Roman 
Gaul, p. 116. 



The Prankish period of history, which begins with the German inva- 



176 



FRANCE. 



sions of tlie 5tli century (Clovis, 481-514), has been already summarized in 
relating the history of the early Germanic states. It lasted five hundred years. 
A reputed ancestor of the German Frank Clovis was named Merovaeus — hence 




Komau Temple at Ni!?mes, called the "JMaisou Carree, 



his dynasty is called the Merovingian. In emphasizing the Germanic nature 
and origin of Frankish history, we must not forget that the process of Roman- 
izing the Franks and other Germans in France, of transforming them from bar- 
barian converts to intellectual and spiritual subjects of Rome, was largely the 
work and mission of the native Gallo-Roman population. (See also the share 
of the Irish missionaries in this work under Irish history.) The absence of 
animosity of race, of the spirit of extermination, in the German invasions, has 
been noticed already, and it helps to explain the assimilation of the conquerors 
by the conquered. On the other hand, the Merovingian period was one of 
ignorance and violence, for the native population as well as for the Franks. 
While one part rose higher the other fell lower, till the general level was be- 
tween the earlier condition of either. The decline of the Merovingian dynasty 
brought the Mayors of the Palace to the throne, with Pepin, 752 (p. 150). 



GERMANIC FRANCE. I77 

Map Study.— Merovingian France, p. 140. But remember that this map shows the 
extent about 500 A. D. ; therefore notice the additions made in 507 and before 550, described at 
pp. 148, 149. To appreciate the final extent of Frankish Merovingian rule, subtract from the 
territory of Charlemagne, at p. 154, North Germany, Austria, Italy, and Northeast Spain. 

The Frank Carlovingian period of French history includes Germany 
and Italy. The quarrels of the sons of Louis the Pious show, however, a tend- 
ency to national separation, which, distinctly begins after the Treaty of Verdun, 
843. This is the period from which the history of France as a separate country 
must begin. 

Although the Frankish Carlovingian line continued to linger till 987, its 
later kings had no influence and made no mark. Their names are included in 
the dynastic lists mainly because to omit them would be to create confusion as 
to the order of number of the French sovereigns in later times. Without ref- 
erence, then, to the titular sovereigns after 843, the 9th century in France has 
three important features — the dissolution of the territorial empire of Charle- 
magne, the absolute triumph of the feudal system over the monarchy, and the 
distress and disorder occasioned by the forays of the Northmen. England and 
Ireland at the same time suffered in the same way. Germany was being dev^as- 
tated by the Hungarians, and the coasts of Italy were ravaged by the Moham- 
medan Arabs. The 9tli century is the darkest of Eurox)ean history. 

The Northmen of Denmark and Scandinavia were the last to trouble 
Europe by pagan cruelty and violence. In contrast with the earlier Germanic in- 
vasions their ravages were made by sea, and being more desultory were far more 
destructive. Every navigable river was entered by their boats, and from the 
farthest limit which could be reached by water they struck inland on plunder- 
ing excursions, to burn and destroy what they could not remove. The animosity 
of these northern pagans had been especially aroused by Charlemagne's con- 
quests of their kindred in Saxony, and a sentiment of revenge inspired their 
terrible raids. The Northmen ravages in France continued from the close of 
Charlemagne's reign in 814 for an entire century, till 911. The necessity of 
combating with them at every point and the incapacity of the later Carlovin- 
gian rulers transferred all duties of defence and powers of government to the 
local fiefs. The great fiefs were made hereditary by Charles the Bald 
in 877. 

The hereditary fiefs were simply independent kingdoms, without real 
subordination to any other civil power. As opposed to this power of the Great 
Barons the later Carlovingian kings had not even the revenues of a fief to pre- 
serve their dignity and pay their expenses. They had at last only the town of 
Laon, east of Paris, for royal. domain 



178 FRANCE. 

Map Study.— Empire of Charlemagne and Divisions of the Treaty of Verdun, p. 154 
Saxony (Saxonia), p. 156 ; Laon, p. 156. 

CARLOVINGIAN RULERS OF FRANCE TO THE 10th CENTURY. 

Pepin \. D. 752-768 

Charlemagne, son of the foregoing '• 768-814 

Louis the Pious, " " " 814-840 

Charles the Bold, " " " 843-877 

Louis II., " " " 877-879 

Louis III., " " " 879-882 

Karlmann, brother of the " " 882-884 

Charles the Fat, 2d cousin of the foregoing " 884-888 

Charles the Simple, son of Louis II. " 888-(929) 

TENTH CENTURY. 



FRENCH KINGS OF THE 10th CENTURY. 

Charles the Simple ad. (888)-929 

" 929-954 

" 954-986 

'■■ 986-987 

" 987-996 

" 996-(1033) 



Louis IV., son of the foregoing 
Lothair, " " 

Louis v., " " 

Hugh Capet 

Robert 




Charles the Simple. 
{AJicient M.S.) 



In 911 a band of Northmen under Rollo, 
by treaty with Charles the Simple, settled the 
territory since called Normandy, in the lower 
valley of the Seine. This province was granted 
them as a means of preventing the desultory 
landings of their pirate countrymen. It was 
now their interest to protect the coasts. 

Northman barbarism at the time of set- 
tlement is illustrated by the story of Eollo's 
homage to Charles the Simple. When sum- 
moned to kiss the king's foot he ordered an 
attendant to perform the ceremony. This was 
effected with such rudeness as to throw the 
king on his back, amid the boisterous laughter 



THE TENTH CENTURY. 



179 



of Rollo's followers. But these Northmen (Normans) became 
Christian converts, and rapidly assimilated the French language, 
laws, and civilization. 

Although now reHeved from foreign invasion, the lack of a 
central royal authority left France a jjrey to the feuds and con- 
flicts of lawless Barons. The right of private war was absolute 
(p. 153) and the worst side of the Feudal System made itself 
apparent. 

Capetian Dynasty. — In 987 the Carlovingian hue became 
extinct. The Duke of Paris, Hugh Capet, founded then the 
dynasty from which all the later kings of France have sprung. 
For the time being the only apparent change in the character of 
French monarchy was, that the king had at least as much territory 
as some of his so-called vassals. 

This Territory was the Isle de France (with the Orleanais; 
Orl-e-anai), the province of vv^hich Paris is the capital. The de- 
velopment of modern France consisted in the gradual consolidation 
around this territory of other feudal provinces, which successively 
yielded their feudal and provincial independence to the authority 
of the royal power. 

Map Study.— Normandy (Normannia), p. 156; Isie de France and the Orleanais— their 
extent at p. 156. For the provinces themselves see a modern map of France. 

SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON THE 
10th CENTURY. 

Explain the Feudal System and its origin. (Pp. 152, 153.) 

In what country was the local independence of feudal territories held in check until the 
middle of the 13th century ? (Pp. 153. 163.) 

Who founded the Holy Roman Empire ? (T. 154.) 

In what country w^as its system continued "? 

How long after the settlement of Normandy began the Saxon line of emperors ? (P. 156.) 

Who was the greatest Saxon emperor ? (P. 157.) 

What was his century ? 

Does his reign fill the earlier, later, or middle portion ? (P. 163.) 

\Vhat countries acknowledged his sovereignty ? (P. 157.) 

In what century were the beginnings of Christianity in Denmark ? (P. 158.) Poland and 
Bohemia? (P. 15S.) 



180 



FR ANCE 



What English king died one year after the beginning of the 10th century ? Ans., Alfred 
the Great. 

Who was Pope in the year 1000 ? (P. 158.) 

Of what German emperor had he as a monk been tutor ? 

Of what French king had he also been the tutor 'z Atis. Of King Robert. 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 

FRENCH KINGS OF THE 11th CENTURY. 

Robert a. d. (996)-1033 

Henry I., son of the foregoing " 1033-1060 

Pliilip I., " " " 1060-1108 

The Truce of God. — The confusion and disorder of this period 
in France, and also the efforts of the Church to improve it, are 









'M^Mi 







jj# 1 ^* 



Kiiights Tilting at a Mannikni FUteenth (.\'ntm> Mfe. at JJrusseis. 

apparent in the institution of the '' Truce of God." By a series *of 
provincial Church Councils a suspension of arms was ordered during 
each week from Wednesday night to Monday morning. 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 181 

Chivalry. — A more effectual and permanent influence was 
exerted, in the efforts of the Church to turn the warUke instincts 
of Feudalism in the right direction, by the institutions of chivalry. 
These proposed the devotion of the warrior to the service of the 
Church, of the poor and of the oppressed. The conditions of chiv- 
alric education, by which the knight was bound to undergo a 
species of novitiate and to maintain an unsulHed honor, humanized 
and softened the manners of the age. The elemental institutions 
of the Feudal Period were Germanic (p. 152), but the develop- 
ment of chivalry was peculiarly French, and this nation above all 
others has ever since retained the ideal of the self-respect, the 
courtesy and the bravery of a " man of honor." The Court of the 
King of France began to be looked upon as the highest school of 
courtesy for the whole kingdom. 

The Crusades.— The consecration of the warhke spirit to the 
service of Christianity and of Christendom took visible and practical 
shape in the Crusades, which began at the close of the 11th century. 
Jerusalem was taken from the Infidels in 1099, 

Norm.ans in Naples and Sicily. — In this century also the swords of 
the Norman knights began to carry French ascendency to other countries of 
Christendom. In 1016 Norman pilgrims had assisted in the expulsion of the 
Arahs from lower Italy. Serving at first the Byzantine and Lombard rulers of 
the state of Naples, they became its masters after 1059, when Kobert Guiscard 
was made Duke of Apulia and Calabria by Pope Nicholas II. Sicily was res- 
cued by them at the same time from the Arabs and was added to the new state. 
The Italian Normans rendered great service to the Eoman Pontiffs in their 
contest with the emperors, 

Normans in England. — In 1066 the Normans, under William the Con- 
queror, accomplished the conquest of England, By this conquest England was 
connected with French culture, and the period of Anglo-Saxon barbarism was 
brought to a close. 

The kings of France were still of small importance in terri- 
torial possession. They were confined to their domain of the Isle 
de France, and the Norman conquest of England was undertaken 
and accomplished without the least reference to the wishes or in- 



182 FRANCE. 

terests of the contemporary king, Philip I. It is not till after 1100 
that the personal influence of the monarchs made itself appreciable 
in French history. They first became important during the period 
of the Crusades, and as a result of the influence of the Crusades on 
France. Among the kings of the 11th century the name of Eobert 
is distinguished for Christian charity and devotion. 

Map Study.— Nor mau kingdom of Sicily and Naples, p. 182. Apulia, same map. Cala- 
bria, p, 156. Normans in England, p. 182. Observe the relations of color in Normandy and 
England. As the Norman conquest precedes the date of this map, turn to page 156 for the 
domain of French monarchy '" Francia,"' in the 11th century. 

SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

What line of German emperors succeeded the Saxon line in 1024 ? (P. 163.) 

Who was the first Franconian emperor of this line ? 

What kingdom in Southeast France was incorporated in his empire in 1032;' (P. 159.) 

What were the dimensions of this state ? (P. 157.) 

To what state belonged the modern French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine 'i (P. 157.) 

To what state belonged the Netherlands ? Switzerland ? (P. 157.) 

Who was the second emperor of the Franconian line ? (P. 163.) 

What new kingdom acknowledged bis sovereignty? (P. 159.) When Christianized? 
(P. 158.) 

Who was Fi-ench king in 1077 ? (P. 180. ) 

Who was Pope in 1077? (P. 160.) 

What happened in this year ? (P. 160.) 

How long after the Norman -French conquest of England ? (P. 181.) 

How long before Jerusalem was taken from the infidels ? (P. 181.) 

Give the important events of the years 1066, 1077. 1099 ? 

What nation took most active part in the Crusades ? Ans. The French. 

What tended to estrange the German empire from interest in the First Crusade ? Ans. 
The contest with the Popes. 



TWELFTH CENTURY (INCLUDING THE FIRST CRUSADE 
JUST BEFORE i loo). 

FRENCH KINGS OF THE 12th CENTURY. 

Philip I A. D. (1060)-1108 

Louis VI., son of the foregoing " 1108-1137 

Louis VII., " " " 1137-1180 

Philip II., Augustus, son of the foregoing " 1180-1323 




^ l]LK()l>E 

Tlxe Aoe of live CiTisadf's 

' hlu, 
I'lii'pojtai'A^ioiij/ ofiiie t'Umtmiiiiet^- in llOOnn Uiflit 
The Crfrnicin Empire /.v colorcil h/iip 
f/ir C/iru-fum stoics in the I'.iisl arc nhocul" />li/ 
'llu: l/]'zunti nt: J"! nip i re i-v colai'cd veUoiy 
The IVcvtern Caliph ale t.v co/orcd (/i ci-ii 
The lui.vteru CaTipliatc i,v liqht (/n'-rn 



THE FIRST CRUSADE. 183 

Cause of the Crusades. — The Mohammedan Arabs had con- 
quered Syria from the East-Roman or Byzantine Empire in 637 
A. D. ; but pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre were not molested till 
toward 1100, after the Mohammedan Turks had supplanted the 
Arab rule. The Turks were originally wandering marauders of the 
steppes between the Caspian and Aral, which extend south to the 
Persian plateau. They adopted the religion of Mohammed in the 
7th and 8th centuries, after the Arab conquest of Asia, which 
reached beyond the Indus. Then, in the decline of Arab power 
and civilization, the Turks assumed the role of ruhng and propping 
up the Mohammedan countries. The Turks holding Syria in the 
11th century were the Seljuks ; not the tribe of Othman, which 
afterward established the present state of Asiatic and European 
Turkey. 

The First Crusade for the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre from 
Unbelievers was preached in Souther^ France by Peter the Hermit, 
a monk of Amiens. Of all nations the French entered into the 
Crusades most enthusiastically, and the name of the Christians of 
Europe in the East has alwa3^s since been the -' Franks." In conse- 
quence of letters brought by Peter the Hermit from the Patriarch 
of Jerusalem, depicting the oppressions of the pilgrims, and of the 
pressing appeals from the East-Roman Emperor, whose territories 
in Asia Minor had been conquered by the Turks, Pope Urban II. 
conyened the Council at Clermont in 1095, by which the Crusade 
was publicly proclaimed. The appeal of Urban II. was greeted by 
the assemblage with the cry, ''It is the will of God." The enthu- 
siasm comprehended all orders of society, and private feuds were 
abandoned. 

Details of the First Crusade. — An advance army of Crusaders fell to pieces on 
the march, and was dispersed in the plains of Hungary and Bulgaria for lack of organism and 
supplies. The second army, which also marched by way of the Danube, reached the walls of 
Constantinople 600,000 strong. Its commander was Godfrey of Bouillon (bwe-yon\ Duke of 
Lower Lorraine, who now atoned for earlier share in the opposition of the Emperor Henry IV. 
to Gregory VII. Other leaders were Hugh of Vermandois (vermandwa), brother of Philip I. of 
France ; Robert of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Bohemund of Tarentum, Nor- 



184 



FRANCE 



man ruler of Southern Italy and son of Robert Guiscard ; and Raymond the Count of Tou- 
louse, ruler of Languedoc. The first work of the Crusaders was the siege and capture of Nicaea, 
in Northwestern Asia Minor, for to this extent had the Seljuk Turks overrun the domain of the 
Byzantine state. The army of the Sultan of Iconium, the ruler of Turkish Asia Minor, was de- 
feated at Dorylaeum, east of Nicyea, The Crusaders then marched under incredible privations 
and difficulties through Asia Minor to Tarsus. The difficulties of obtaining forage and pro- 
visions, the debilitating effects of the Eastern climate for Europeans, and ignorance of the ter- 
ritory to be traversed, were obstacles not less serious than the task of combating with the 
highly trained warriors of the East. The Feudal chivalry, whose force lay in the valor and 
prowess of individual knights, was not adapted to distant expeditions or to union in large 
bodies. Thus the ultimate success of the First Crusade is sufficient testimony to the zeal and 
valor of its leaders and soldiers. 

Capture of Jerusalem. — On reaching Northern Syria, a por- 
tion of the crnsading army under Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, was 

directed across the 
Northern Euphrates, 
and here was founded 
the Christian princi- 
pality of Edessa. This 
was to protect the 
Christians in Syria 
from attacks by way 
of the Euphrates. The 
siege of Antioch occu- 
pied nine months, and 
after its capture it 
became the centre of a 
principality ruled by 
the Italian Xorman, 
Bohemund of Taren- 
tum. Only 1,500 
knights and 20,000 
foot reached the walls 
of Jerusalem. They 
stormed the city on the loth of July, 1099. Godfrey of Bouillon 
was elected the first Christian king of Jerusalem, but refused to wear 
the crown where our Saviour had borne the chaplet of thorns. The 




Chuich of the Holy bepulchie, Jeiusalem. 
(Built by the Cinisaders.) 



TWELFTH CENTURY. 



185 

hold of the European Christians on Syria lasted for two centuries, 
altiiongli Jerusalem itself was lost in 1187. 

The later Crusades generally miscarried, or wasted much energy in proportion to 

from making aggressive war on Eu- 
rope. The two centuries of Christian 
occupation in Syria gave that much 
additional lease of life to the East- 
Roman Empire, which, although it 
showed the Crusaders no gratitude, 
continued an important factor in the 
development of Western civihzation 
until the middle of the 15th century. 
The commercial relations of the Gen- 
oese and the Venetians were firmly 
established at this time in the Le- 
vant, and continued long after the 
Crusades were over, and until mod- 
ern times entered on new paths of 
commerce with Asia. 

The Second Crusade 

was undertaken in 1147, in 

consequence of the conquest 

by the Saracens of the principality of Edessa. The French king Louis VII. 

I -—— — , ^^^ ^^6 Hohenstaufen emperor Con- 

rad III., both took part in it at the 
summons of Pope Eugene III. St. 
Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux (clare- 
vo) was active in promoting it. The 
Christian armies were ahnost de- 
stroyed in Asia Minor, mainly by 
the perfidy of the Byzantine allies, 
who began to fear the West more 
than the East. The remnants of 
these armies which reached Syria 
laid siege to Damascus without 
success, and Edessa was not re- 
covered. 




Tomb of Godfrey of Bouillon in the Holy Sepulchre 
Church at Jerusalem.* 





Castle of the Syrian Crusaders near Tiberias. 
(Bestorationfrom the Ruins.) 



Third Crusade.-In 1187 the capture of Jerusalem by the Turk Saladin, 
* Prom a drawing made 1828 ; the tomb since destroyed. 



186 FRANCE. 

whose successes confined tlie Christians to two strips of territory on the Syrian 
coast, the principalities of Tripolis and Tyre, led to the Third Crusade, time of 

Pope Urban III. The Hohenstau- 

fen, Frederick Barbarossa, was its 

^' ■ .-, most important leader, on account 

^-< of the discipline of his army and 

^, ''\ his military experience. He was 

drowned in crossing the river Caly- 
cydnus (near Tarsus), which had once 
been nearly fatal to Alexander the 
\ . Great. Deprived of his leadership, 

^ the German army reached the 

--^ Syrian Christians with diminished 

m!((' / numbers and weak heart. Forces 

\ ; ^, ^ led by Richard I., "the Lion- 

^^^^ t^^ll^^ hearted," of England, and by 

Philip II. of France, sailed across 

Knight of the Twelfth Century. the JNfediterranean to Syria, and 

{From a seal dated wm:) assisted the Crusaders already 

engaged in the siege of Acre. 

The capture of Acre was the only great success of the Third Crusade. 

Dissensions between the French and English kings caused the return home of 

the former. Richard performed prodigies of valor as a knight, but as a general 

he was not successful in coping with Saladin, and Jerusalem was not recovered. 

Rise of French Royalty. — Meantime, in France the three 
reigns which cover the 12th century — those of Louis VI. ,, Louis VII., 
and Philip XL, began that development of the royal power w^hich was 
destined to make of this country the first compactly organized and 
united modern state of Continental Europe. Under the direc- 
tion of Suger (sooja), Abbot of St. Denis and Minister of Louis VI. 
and Louis VII., the pohcy of royal alliance with the civic commu- 
nities was inaugurated. 

The city communes were the centres of commerce, and therefore were 
the natural antagonists to the system of feudal territorial independence and 
private war, which had left the rulers of France without real power since the 
death of Charlemagne. Charters and liberties were now granted by the kings 



TWELFTH CENTURY. jg^ 

to the communes, which secured their financial and military alliance for the 
monarchy in its contest with the Feudal system. This alliance was promoted by 
the influence of the Crusades. Public sentiment had been raised above narrow 
local jealousies by contact with foreign nations, and the merchant classes 
acquired wealth and consideration by the more luxurious mode of life intro- 
duced after contact with ttie East. 

Map Study for the Crusades.-Byzantine Empire, p. 140. This empire is called 
mdiffereutly Byzantine, East-Roman, or Greek. It is the Greek half of the Roman Empire 
On this map it is marked by the words - Greek Empire.- Compare, for Arab conquest of Syria 
and Egypt, map at p. 154. For further description of these and other conquests see history 
of the Arabs and Turks, in Book III. 

Caspian and Aral Seas, see a modern map. Amiens, in Northern France, modern map 
Turkish encroachment on Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, p. 182. Clermont, p. 182 Hun- 
gary and Bulgaria, the same. Constantinople, the same. 

On same map, Lorraine-(belongs to what empire ?)-Toulouse and Languedoc, Nicfea 
Iconium, Dorylaeum. ' ' 

Enlarged map of Syria, time of the Crusades, Tarsus, Edessa, Antioch, Jerusalem 

Clairvaux, in Champagne. Damascus, p. 154. Tripolis, Tyre, Acre (see Ptolemais), p. 182. 

MAP EXPLANATION FOR EUROPE DURING THE TWELFTH CENTURT. 

Eleanor of Acquitaine, wife of Louis \^I., had for a short time brought her husband 
as her dowry and inheritance, the whole of Southwestern France. But Eleanor was divorced 
from Louis VIL soon after the Second Crusade, and carried these territories to her second 
husband, Henry II., King of England in 1154. 

Since the Norman conquest of England, the Normans also ruled Brittany and Maine The 
additional extent of the English color is derived-first, from the Plantagenet inheritance of 
Anjou and Touraine. The father of Henry II.. was Count of these provinces. Second • 

Henry's marriage with Eleanor gave the English kings Acquitaine (in which name 
Gascony was then included), that is, the whole of Southwest France. The provinces of this 
inheritance are to be looked out on a modern map. They are Gascony, Guienne, Limousin. 
Angoumois, Saintouge, Poitou, and Auvergne. 

Thus, in the 12th century, one French Baron ruled about a third of France and England 
beside. 

On the other hand, the French king ruled only about one-fifteenth of France. 

The following- were also Feudal independent territories : 

Languedoc, map, p. 182. 

Provence and Dauphine (map for Europe about 1400) were in "Burgundy," p 182 and 
belonged to the Germanic Empire (p. 157). 

Champagne (p. 156) was an independent Feudal state. 

Franche Comte (or the Free County of Burgundy) belonged to the Germanic Empire 

Lorrame and Alsace (modern map) belonged to the Germanic Empire. See explanations 
at p. 157. 

Picardy (modern map) belonged to the Count of Flanders (Flandria, p. 156). 



188 FRANCE. 

The Duchy of Burgundy (map for Europe abou) 1400), where see its distinction from the 
county and kingdom of same name), was also independent. 

The foreg-oing- explanations are especially important for the later part of the reign of 
Philip II. and for following sovereigns. Under them modern France began to be built up 
from these hitherto independent states, beginning with the Anglo-French jirovinces. 



SYNCHRONISTIC AND OTHER QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE, 

FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 

What line of emperors began in 1137 ? (P. 1G3.) 

What two French kings may be dated by this year? (P. 182.) 

When did Barbarossa become emperor ? Ans. In 1152. 

Who was French king tlien y 

Date the battle of Legnano ? Aiifi. 1170. 

What change in the relations of Italy and Gi'rraany does this recall ? (P. 161.) 

Who was Pope ? (P. 161.) 

What followed ? Ans. The independence and subsequent greatness of the Italian Com- 
munes. 

Name the most important ? Ans. Venice, Milan, Genoa, Pisa, Florence. 

What is, therefore, the most important feature of Italian history in the 12th century? 

What is the important feature of French history in this century? (P. 186.) 

^Vhen did the Gothic Cathedrals rise in Germany ? (P. 160.) 

What do they indicate ? (P. 169.) 

Whence did the style come ? (P. 169.) When did it begin ? Ans. In the 12th century. 

How many Crusades in the 12th century ? 

What German emperor took part in the Third Crusade ? What French king ? 

What sovereignty did tlie provinces of Northwestern France acknowledge in the reign of 
Philip n. before 1200? A?is. The English. 

What sovereignty was acknowledged by Southwestern France ? A7is. The English. 

What sovereignty was acknowledged by Southeastern France ? Ans. The German. 



SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 

What provinces of France were not subject to the monarch in 1200 ? 

What great events had, however, led the people to wish for closer unity ? 

In what ways did tlie Crusades assist the rise of Frencli monarchy ? (P. 187.) 

Why were the City Communes opposed to the Feudal System ? (P. 186.) 

What is the century of St. Bernard ? 

By what Crusade can liis date be fixed ? 

What sovereigns did he influence and inspire ? Ans. Lothair the Saxon and Louis "\n[I. 

What important event of English history belongs to the 12th century? A7is. The murder 
of Thomas a Becket, 1170. 

What important event of Irish history in the 12th century? Ans. The Anglo-Norman 
invasion, about 1170. 

When was founded, by French Normans, a Norman state in Naples and Sicily ? (P. 181.) 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 



189 



What became of this kingdom at the close of the 12th century ? (P. 162.) 

What was the Byzantine Empire ? (P. 135.) 

What province of the Byzantine Empire was almost entirely conquered by the Seljuk Turks 
before the First Crusade ? Map for the 12th century. 

What provinces had been conquered by the Mohammedan Arabs ? (P. 150, and map for 
Charlemagne, p. 154.) ^Hien? (P. 150.) 

From whom had the generals of Justinian conquered Northern Africa ? (P. 147.) 

When did the Vandals come there ? (P. 144.) 

Of what empire was it a portion previously ? 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

FRENCH KINGS OF THE 13th CENTURY. 

Philip II., Augustus a. d. (1180)-1223 

Louis VIIT.. son of tlie foregoing " 1223-1226 

Louis IX., " " " 1226-1270 

Philip III., " " •' 1270-1285 

Philip IV., the Fair, son of the foregoing " 1285-(1314) 







m 





CalheUral of 2nuu. 



u the reign uf Philip Augustuti 



190 FRANCE. 

Royal Acquisition of Northwestern France. — After the 
death uf Richard of England in 1199. the succeeding English king 
John had murdered his nephew, Duke Arthur of Brittany, the 
rightful heir. From motives of policy and of justice, Philip II. 
Augustus had espoused the cause of Arthur, and as John's feudal 
lord cited him to answer for the crime. John refused to appear, 
and in consequence lost, after 1204, as much by disaffection of these 
provinces as by conquest of arms, Xormandy, Brittany, Anjou, 
Maine, Tourraine, Poitou, Saintonge, Angoumois, and the Limousin. 
Guienne, including Gascony, alone remained English. The Channel 
Islands, which still belong to England, are the remnant of the pos- 
sessions lost by John to the French king. Auvergne was also about 
the same time, in 1209, acquired by confiscation. 

Battle of Bouvines. — To recover his losses, John united an 
army of Germans and Flemings 150,000 strong. Philip defeated it 
with an army of 60,000 militia of the Communes at Bouvines, be- 
tween Lille and Tournay, 1214. 

Albigensian Crusade. — To this hold gained on Northern and 
Western France was soon added the control of Languedoc, the most 
important province of the South. In Southern France the sect of 
the Albigenses, named from the town of Alby, had developed a 
heresy dangerous to religion and to morals. Pope Innocent III. 
proclaimed a crusade against them, which was undertaken by the 
French of the North. " The atrocious cruelties of the sectaries 
provoked reprisals equally atrocious, and although this war saved 
both religion and civihzation in the South, neither accept the respon- 
sibility of cruelties inflicted in their name, but against their spirit. " 

Acquisition of Languedoc— The general in command against 
the Albigenses was the Simon de Montf ort, Earl of Leicester, whose 
son is considered the originator of the English House of Commons. 
To Simon de Montfort was given the province of Languedoc, for- 
feited by its ruler, Raymond of Toulouse, on account of the sym- 
pathy and assistance given the Albigensian sectaries. Amalric, 
elder son and successor of Simon de Montfort, unable to control his 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 191 

inberitauce, transferred it three years after the death of Philip 
Augustus, to his successor, Louis VIII. (in l'^26). 

The Fourth Crusade. — At the opening of the 13th century, in 1202, the 
Fourth Crusade was undertaken to recover Jerusalem, lost since 1187 (p. 185). 
The expedition was assembled at Venice, and by Venetian persuasion, after set- 
ting sail, was directed against tlie Byzantine state, contrary to the Pope's 
wishes. Constantinople was taken, and Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was de- 
clared sovereign of the "Latin Empire " of the East, although three-fourths of 
its territories were divided among other participants in the expedition, the 
Venetians taking the larger share. This " Latin Empire " lasted from 1204 to 
1261. The Byzantine Empire was then reconstituted. 

The Fifth Crusade. — Although two abortive expeditions are sometimes 
included in the number of the Crusades, the fifth is generally counted as the 
one undertaken bv the Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick II., in 1227 and 1228. 
He was successful in making a truce with the Sultan of Egypt, by which Jeru- 
salem was yielded again to the Christians. But in 1244 a new horde from the 
steppes near the Caspian, the Charismian (Karismian) Turks, overflowed Syria, 
and Jerusalem was lost once more. 

The Sixth Crusade. — This led to the Sixth Crusade, undertaken in 1249 
by the French king, Louis IX., the most celebrated sovereign of Medieval 
France. His expedition was directed against Egypt, in order to secure by the 
possession of this country a sure hold of Syria. But after some successes, the 
army and king were made captives by the Egyptian Sultan. Louis was ran- 
somed, and spent some time in assisting the Crusaders of Syria to strengthen 
their positions on the coast, returning to France in 1254. 

The Seventh Crusade. — In 1270, Louis IX. again undertook a Crusade, 
the seventh and last. Intended to conquer both Egypt and Syria, it was first 
directed against the Mohammedans of Tunis, and was here overtaken by a 
pestilence in which the king lost his life. 

Later history of the Christians in the East.— Discontent at the diminution of 
Lonis' ransom by the Egyptian Sultan had led to the overthrow of the latter by his body-f?uard 
of Tartar and Caucasian slaves, called Mamelukes. They placed one of their own niunber on 
the throne of Egypt and then gradually wrested from the Christians in Syria their remaining 
strongholds. After desperate resistance Acre, the last cnisading fortress in this country, was 
taken in 1-391. 

The Ottoman Turks occupied Constantinople, 1453, one hundred and fifty years 
later, but the Ejiights of St. John held the Island of Ehodes till 1522, and Cyprus, which 
passed to the Venetians, was held by them till 1571. In this year the naval battle of Lepanto 
was a decisive check on the farther advance of the Mohammedans in Europe. (See Turkish his- 



192 FRANCE. 



tory, Book III.) It is not, however, till our owa century that the Turkish Mohammedan power 
has begun sensibly to yield ground. The miserable condition to which its rule has reduced the 
once flourishing territories of Southeastern Europe, of Asia Minor, of Syria, Egypt and North 
Africa, is an all-sufficient testimony to the far-seeing wisdom of the Mediaeval Popes, in unit- 
ing the energies of Europe against the foe of its civilization and in attacking it on its own 
ground. 

In a tim.e when the arms and inventions of* Western civilization have placed it above the 
danger of destruction, it is not easy to estimate the dangers which threatened it when the 
weapons and skill of Eastern warfare were equal, and often superior, to those of the West, 
To the policy of the Popes— which enabled the states of Europe to develop their strength and 
forces before the barrier against the East which the Byzantine Empire interposed was over- 
thrown—the very existence of modern civilization must be attributed. 

" Although the later Crusades were unsuccessful and the territorial gains of the earlier ones 
were gradually lost (the fall of Acre at the close of the 13th century, 1291, ended the Christian 
power in Syria), it cannot be said that the result of the Crusades was a failure. Their imme- 
diate effect was to save the Christian world from a Turkish invasion, and to teach the sons of 
the Prophet what they had to fear from the warriors of Jesus Christ. They increased the 
spiritual and temporal power of the Popes, who were supreme directors of the transmarine 
warfare. The political influences of the Crusades extended, 1st, to the rulers, who were 
enabled by them to strengthen their authority and extend their domain ; 2d, to the nobility— the 
orders of knighthood established in the East shed their lustre upon Europe and were imitated 
in every Christian kingdom; 3d, to the people -the Crusades did more than any other agent 
to favor emancipation, the establishment of municipalities, and of the third estate or commons ; 
4th, to commerce and indn-try— the growing necessity for more frequent journeys, their 
profitable issue, and many practices borro^ved from the pilots of the Levant, gave a great im- 
pulse to the nautical art. The maritime cities which became the emporiums of Eastern com- 
merce drew to themselves increase of population, and some of them becaoie powerful repub- 
lics. Witness the prosperity of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Marseilles and Barcelona. From the 
same source, though by less direct action, sprang the wealth and activity of the Flemish cities, 
which were at once commercial and manufacturing towns, serving as great marts between the 
North and South. The soil was taught to bear new products, and the mulberry, buckwheat, 
sugar cane, etc., were brought into Europe. The Crusades advanced general civilization by 
opening new relations between the various nations and the mutual interchange of practical 
knowledge. The laws of honor and courtesy were communicated by chivalry to the practices 
of daily life and did much to raise the middle classes. The repeated expeditions to Syria, the 
diplomatic relations consequently opened with the Mongols of the farther East, and the new 
roads they cleared for commerce, gave to the West a much more correct notion of the East 
and even of the interior of Asia. Oriental history also shared the new light cast upon geogra- 
phy, and Arabia gave to medical science many new ideas for the treatment of diseases and the 
use of simples, while mathematics and mechanics were enriched from the treasures of Eastern 
lore^— {Abbe Darras'' '^ History of the Church^) 

The Domestic Policy of Louis IX. was not attended by 
the disasters wliich the Eastern climate and nnaccustomed surround- 
ings brought upon his two foreign expeditions. He was both a 
strict and merciful executor of justice. He protected the common 
people, held in check his Barons and won the hearts of all by up- 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY 



193 



right behavior and nobihty of life. In view of the very recent and 
large increase in the extent of the royal domain, of the savage Albi- 
gensian war by which one portion had been gained, and of the insub- 
ordinate spirit of the times, the 
later security and solidity of 
the French monarchy must be 
attributed largely to the esteem 
for it which he inspired in his 
people. 

Louis IX. was canonized 
by Pope Boniface VIII. at the 
close of the same century. He 
owed much of the elevation of 
his mind to the Franciscans 
and Dominicans by whom he 
was surrounded. On difficult 
questions he was wont to con- 
sult St. Thomas Aquinas. 

Under Philip III. tlie 
monarchy was peaceful and 
well governed. 

Philip IV., the Fair, added 
to its territory Champagne, in 1285, by marriage with its heiress. In 
his relations with the Church he lacked the spirit of Louis IX., and 
maltreated shamefully Boniface VIII., who had canonized his grand- 
father. His difficulties with the Pope arose from the exactions 
which he practised on the French clergy, and these again were 
caused by need of money to carry on war with the English and their 
Flemish allies — defeat of the French at Courtrai (Koortray), 1302. 

The Templars.— The same need of money led to Philip's con- 
fiscations of the wealth of the Knights Templars, who were cruelly 
persecuted by him to this end. History is in doubt as to the crimes 
of the Temple Order, but not as to the cruelty of Philip's process. 
The Order was suppressed by Pope Clement V. in 1312. It had 




Amieu> Luinuurai. 
{Built ill the reign of Louis IX.) 



194 FRANCE. 

been the great bulwark of the Crusaders in the East, but became 
corrupt by the immense wealth heaped upon it. 

Map Study.— The provinces lost by John are indicated by the light blue color on map 
for the 12th century ; if Gascony and Guienne be noted as the only ones remaining English. 

Province of Auvergne, see modern map. 

Bouvines, in Flanders. 

Languedoc, map for Europe about 1400. Alby, northeast of Toulouse, modern map. 

Venice, p. 182 ; Tunis, p. 182 ; Rhodes, modern map ; Cyprus, p. 182 ; Lepanto, modern 
map of Greece, north side of the Gulf of Corinth ; Champagne, p. 156; Courtrai, in Flanders. 

MAP EXPLANATION. 

Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX., had been given this province of Anjou by his 
father. He added to it, by marriage with its heu-ess— Provence (map for 1400), so far a feudal 
territory of the Germanic Empire, but by this time practically independent of it, and by con- 
quest from Conradin, heir of the Hohenstaufens— Naples (South Italy), 1268. 

In this conquest, made by Papal assistance and approbation, Sicily was included ; but this 
island, lost to the French by the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, 1282, passed to the House 
of Aragon, through a marriage relationship of the Hohenstaufeus and the preference of the 
revolted people. 

Thus was founded the French Angevin line in Naples, with Provence as dependency. 
(Angevin is an adjective formed from Anjou.) See also the color for Aragon and Sicily. 



SYNCHRONISTIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN 
EXERCISE ON THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 

Who was French king before and after 1200 ? (P. 189.) 

Who was Pope ? (P. 168.) 

What influence had this Pope on English history ? Ans. He appointed the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, Stephen Langtou, who procured the great charter of English liberties from King 
John. 

What provinces did King John lose to Philip II. ? When ? 

Since when had an English king ruled Normandy and Brittany ? Ans. Since the Norman 
conquest of England. 

Date it ? (P. 181.) 

Since when had an English king ruled Anjou and Maine ? (P. 187.) 

Since when had an English king ruled the Acquitanian inheritance ? (P. 187.) 

What were these '•English" kings? Ans. French Barons, 

What province was united with the French monarchy in 1209 ? (P. 190.) 

When was Languedoc united with the monarchy ? (P. 191.) 

As result of what war ? 

What Pope prompted the Albigensian Crusade ? (P. 190.) 

What Pope procured the Fourth Crusade ? A7i$. Innocent III. 

Did its result meet his wishes ? (P. 191.) 



■THIRTEENTH CENTURY. I95 

SECOKD REVIEW LESSOls". 

What province passed to a French ruler (not the king) in the time of Louis IX. '? (P. 194 ) 

How did it become connected v/ith Naples ? (P. 194.) 

From whom was Naples conquered ? (Pp. 162. 194.) 

When had the Hohenstaufens obtained it ? (P. 162.) 

From whom ? (P. 181.) 

Who was Hohenstaufen emperor at the time ? (P. 162.) 

For what else is Henry VI. renowned ? Am. For detaining Richard the Lion-hearted, of 
England, in captivity on his return from the Third Crusade. Richard was not relea.sed till 
he paid a heavy ransom. 

What was the legal condition of Provence when it passed to Charles of Anjou ? Ans. Fief 
of the German Empire. 

Since when ? (P. 159.) 

But when had the power of the emperor met a decided check ? (P. 160.) 

When had it been mainly excluded from North Italy ? (P. 161.) 

What sustained the emperors in Italy a little longer ? (P. 162.) 

Who overthrew the Hohenstaufen cause finally ? (P. 162.) 

When were Germanic pretensions to sovereignty over Southeastern France formally 
abandoned ? (P. 166.) 

What province was united with the French monarchy in 1285 ? (P. 193.) 

What province was receded to England under Henry III., sou of John, by Louis IX. ? Ans. 
The Limousin. 

What province had the English always retained since the time of Eleanor of Acquitaine ? 
Ans. Guienne, including Gascony. 

What French provinces, therefore, had the English in the time of Louis IX. ? 

How would you fix the time of Eleanor of Acquitaine ? Ans. Divorced from Louis VII 
and married Heniy II. after the Second Crusade. Date the Second Crusade. 

What cathedral dates from Philip Augustus ? Ans. Notre Dame, in Paris. 

What king founded the University of Paris ? Ans. Philip Augustus. 
What is his central date ? 

Who founded the college and theological factilty of the Sorbonne ? Ans. Robert de 
Sorbon. chaplain of Louis IX. 

THIRD REVIEW LESSON^. 
Who was French king in 1250 ? (P. 189.) Wlieu did he die ? 
How long before the accession of Rudolf of Hapsburg did he die ? (P. 164.) 
What is the character of the empne after Rudolf of Hapsburg ? (Pp. 163, 164.) 
What influence on the French monarchy had Louis IX. ? 
What Saint and theologian was his friend ? 
Who caused him to be canonized ? 
When did Louis IX. die ? 

When did Edward I. succeed Henry HI. as King of England ? Ans. 1272. 
How many years between the death of Louis IX. and accession of Edward I. ? 
How many years between the accessions of Edward I. and of Rudolf of Hapsburg ? 
What phase of English history begins with Edward I. ? Ans. The French Baron, King of 
England, has become an English king with French possessions. 



196 FRANCE. 

What was the result ? Am. Jealousy between the two nations, as opposed to feudal cotq, 
tentious between Frenchmen ; the earlier aspect of French and English relations. 

What war offered Philip the Fair opportunity to harass the English? Ans. Edward's war 
with Scotland after 1290. 

Into what crime and cruelties did this contention draw- Philip IV. the Fair ? (P. 193.) 

Who was French king in 1200 ? In 1250 ? In 1300 ? 

Date the death of the last Hohenstaufen emperor ? Ans. 1254. 

What important event in Northeastern Europe in the 13th century ? (P. 16S.) 

When was Syria abandoned by the Christians ? (P. 191.) 

Did they therefore abandon resistance to the encroachments of the Mohammedan East ? 
(P. 191.) 

What shows the necessity of the Crusades ? (P. 192.) 

When have the Turks begun to lose their hold on Europe ? (P. 192.) 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 



THE DESCENT OF EDWARD HI. AND PHILIP VI. OP VALOIS. 



Philip III., tl285. 



Philip IV. the Fair. 1 1314. Charles of Valois. 



Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella= Edward II. 

tl316. +1322. +1.327. | 



Philip VI. 



Edward III. 

FRENCH KINGS OF THE 14th CENTURY. 

Philip IV. the Fair a. D. (1385-1314 

Louis X. ] r " 1314-1316 

Philip V, y sons of the foregoing -I " 1816-1322 

Charles IV. J [ " 1322-1327 

Philip VI. of Valois " 1327-1350 

John, son of the foregoing •. " 1350-1364 

Charles V., son of the foregoing " 1364-1380 

Charles VI., " " " 1380-(1422) 

Reign of Philip the Fair, continued.— Notwithstanding the bad per- 
sonal character of Philip IV., he assisted the tendencies of the country to unite 
under the monarchy. The still remaining obstacle to this national unification 
was the hold of the English kings on Acquitaine (dating from the marriage of 
Henry II. and Eleanor). The consequent tension between France and England 
resulted in a war which lasted over a century and terminated in the subsequent 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY 



197 




rise of France as the first modern monarchy. Philip IV. had seized portions of 
this Southwestern France, when the English, under Edward I., were engaged 
in war with Scotland after 
1290, and, to combat the 
English in France, the 
Scotch were openly or cov- 
ertly assisted. This led, 
when England was freed 
from the Scotch war, to- 
ward 1330, to the out- 
break of the long wars be- 
tween France and England, 
which continued till the 
middle of the loth century. 

The accession of 
Philip VI. gave Ed- 
ward TIL, of England, 
pretext for declaring 
war, on account of his 
own descent from Phil- 
ip IV., whose daughter 
Isabella was his mothe]-. 
Edward's claim could 
not stand in French 
law, which gave prefer- 
ence to the male line. The ambition of the English king was, 
however, not only to hold Southwestern France independent of the 
French allegiance legally due, but to regain also the provinces lost 
by John (p. 190). Hence the claim to the French throne. 

The Franco-English Wars.— Tlie first period was one of suc- 
cess for the English— victories of Sluys (naval), 1340; of Crecy, 
1346, and Poitiers, 1356. In this last battle the French king John 
the Good was taken prisoner, and he died in captivity. 

The Peace of Bretigny (Bretinyi), in 1360, gave the English 
absolute possession of Acquitaine, as opposed to their earher feudal 




Cluirch of St. Oiieu, at Eoiieu. 
{Early 14th Century.) 



198 FRANCE. 

possession, but tliej abandoned the claim to the French crown and 
to the Northern provinces conquered by PhiUp II. from John.. 

The war was reopened, at the accession of Charles V., in 
1364, by the French. As carried on by their national hero, Du 
Guesclin (Gliaklin), it resulted in the almost entire expulsion of the 
English. They only retained Bordeaux and Calais. This latter town 
had been taken after the victory of Crecy. The war languished after 
1380, under Eichard II. of England, and the overthrow of this king, 
in 1400, by the Lancastrian dynasty of Henry lY., represented the 
resulting English discontent. 

Map Study.— Sluys, in Flanders, p. 200 ; Crecy, or Cressy, extreme Norlhern France ; 
Poitiers, in Poitou, p. 200. 

Bretigny, soutliwest of Paris, p. 200. The English possessions given to England absolutely 
and without French claim of feudal allegiance by the Treaty of Bretigny, are light red on the 
map for Europe about 1400. 

Bordeaux, Southwest France, p. 200; Calais, extreme Northern France, p. 200. 

MAP EXPLANATION FOR EUROPE ABOUT 1400. 

Compare map for Europe in the 12th century with map for Europe about 1400. 

AcQLViisition of Dauphine.— An important event of the 14th century is the acquisition 
of Dauphine. See matter at page 160. 

Independent " Secondai'y " or Branch Lines. — But the process of unifying the 
provinces of France was counteracted by gift of territories to branches of the royal family. 
These then developed an independent influence, and often assumed an attitude of veiLed or 
open opposition to the monarchy. 

Brittany, after conquest by Philip Augustus, was thus bestowed on the House of Dreux 
(Droo), founded by the uncle of this king ; and the dukes of Brittany attained an independence 
which makes the subsequent reunion of this province with France, at the close of the 15th 
century, one of the most universally quoted facts of French history. 

Provence became in the same way a dependence of Naples, when Charles of Anjou, 
brother of Louis IX., acquired this kingdom in the 13th century and transmitted it to his 
descendants. 

The province of Anjou itself was reunited with the monarchy by Philip of Valois, 
and John the Good gave it to a son Louis— thus founding the Second Line of Anjou. 

Dukedom of Burgundy.— Of such branch lines the most important of all is the Line of 
Burgundy, also founded by John the Good. John gave the duchy of Burgundy (map, p. 200) 
to his son Philip the Bold, 1361. 

Distinctions as to the meaning- of the word Burgnndy.— Under this duke and 
three successors was developed, by additions through marriage, purchase and conquest, one of 
the most important European stales of its time. Its possessions, as transmitted by marriage, 
were an essential element in the greatness of the most potent sovereign of the 16th century, 
the Emperor Charles V. ; and ignorance gf its nature and territories involves a hopeless con- 



FOURTEENTH C^ E X T U R Y 



199 



fusion in the details of history after 1500. Such confusion is favored by the varying applica- 
tion of the word " Burgundy " at different periods of history and its simultaneous use in dif- 
ferent senses for the same period. 

The orig-inal king-dom of Burgundy (map, p. 140), founded by the Burgundians of 
the 5th century, took in the territories on the Rhone and Saone, reaching from beyond 
their western banks to the eastern borders of modern France and from the Mediterranean 
into Switzerland. It took in the territories afterwards known as the Franche-Comte or free 
county of Burgundy, the duchy of Burgundy, Savoy, Dauphine and Provence. All of these 
territories were incorporated in the Frankish dominions after 534 (p. 149). 

In the division at Verdun, 843, the later " duchy " of Burgundy— that is, the province 
so named on the modern map of France— was included in the French territories of Charles the 
Bald. The remaining provinces were part of the Imperial domain of Lothair (map at p. 154). 
When this domain was dismembered soon after (p. 156), the Burgundian territories were ruled 
by independent princes and kings till the formal incorporation with the "Empire" ; time of 
Conrad II., 1032 (p. 159). They are known (map at p. 156) as the kingdom of Burgundy or 
Arelat (from the town of Aries). 

Of the two most important Southern provinces of this state, Provence came 
under Charles of Anjou (13th century) and so to the State of Naples, while Dauphine became 
a French province, as just 
noted, in 1347, when the Em- 
peror Charles IV. abandoned 
any farther Imperial claims on 
Arelat. 

Meantime, the French 
Duchy of Burgundy, united 
with the monarchy under Eob- 
ert and transferred by him to 
the line founded by his son, 
continued under this house till 
its extinction in 1361. John 
the Good then gave it to his 
son Philip the Bold. 

From this time "Bur- 
gundy," which once indicated 
provinces reaching from the 
French duchy to the Mediter- 
ranean, comes to mean coun- 
tries reaching north of the 
duchy to the North Sea. 

The first Duke, Philip 
the Bold, added to the 
French Duchy by marriage 

—Franche-Comte, Artois and Flanders (map at p. 200 and modern map), feudal dependen- 
cies of the Germanic Empire. But the weakness of the Empire at this time (see the German 
history) left the owner of these possessions an independent prince. By conquest, purchase, or 
marriage, these possessions were so extended before the middle of the next century (the 15th) 
as to include Luxemburg and the Netherland provinces, that Is, modern Belgium and Holland. 



m^M 




Seal of John the Fearless, third Duke of "Burgundy." 



200 FRANCE. 

The final extent of the Burg-undian territory is represented on the map for Europe 
about 1550, where the purple color in the 'Frauche-Comte" and the "Netherlands" denotes 
the Buri,'undian inheritance of Charles V. and of Philip II. of Spain. But the duchy itself has 
meantime reverted to France under Louis XI. 

Independence of a Burg-undian Duke.— In the time of which we are speaking the 
Netherland territories were attached to the Germanic Empire, but really yielded their ruler the 
position of an independent sovereign. Thus for a small part only of his possessions was a 
Burgundian duke of the 15th century even theoretically the subject of a French sovereign. 
For his richest territories he was feudally connected with an empire which had abandoned its 
pretensions to real sovereignty. 

The towns of the Netherlands, Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, etc., by their commerce 
and manufactures, were the richest and the most important of Northern Europe. The Flemish 
manufactures of cloth connected their commercial interests with those of England, which fur- 
nished them with wool. Thus is explained the hostility to France of the "Burgundian" 
dukes, in the 15ih century, during and after the Franco-English wars. In the nest section any 
further explanation of this Burgundian hostility to Fi-ance will be unnecessary. 



SYNCHRONISTIC AND OTHER QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

FIEST KEVIEW LESSON. 

Name the English kings of the 14th century? Ans. Edward I., Edward II., Edward III., 
Richard II. tl400. 

How did the Scotch war affect relations with France ? (P. 197.) 

Why were the French disposed to antagonize the English ? (P. 196.) 

When did the sentiment in favor of French unity begin ? (P. 186.) 

On which side were the brihiant victories of the Franco-English wars ? 

On which side the solid results ? (P. 198.) 

What did these victories demonstrate? Ans. The inutihty, in large battles, of the Feudal 
chivalry, on which the French depended, as opposed to organized bands of foot like the Eng- 
lish bowmen. The knights were employed by the EngUsh to complete their victories, not to 
begin them. 

What important province was united with the French monarchy in 1347 ? (P. 166.) 

^Tio was king? (P. 196.) 

Who became the first Dauphin ? (P. 166.) 

Who was emperor ? (P. 166.) 

What had he to do in this acquisition ? (P. 166.) 

Who was his father ? Am. John of Luxemburg-Bohemia, (P. 165.) 

Where was this king of Bohemia killed ? Ans. At Crecy. 

What motto and crest were then borrowed from this king of Bohemia by the English Prince 
of Wales? Ans. The three ostrich feathers and motto "Ich dien " (I serve). 

What is the date of the Golden Bull ? (P. 170.) Of the battle of Poitiers ? 

Who was paternal grandfather of the Emperor Charles IV. ? (P. 165.) 

How does Henry YU. of Luxemburg call up the name of Dante, the Italian poet ? (P. 165.) 

What is the century of Dante ? 



WESTERN EUROPE 
about 1400 A.D. 

Eniflish dominion light yelion 
.Ifputaznc liifltl ty>d 
fmu'/l donunwri T'ed 
Aiufnin dominion r 
Ainijniu'si' d4nmnion hr-oini 
Lio vcniburxf posse,^siot(.s l>lii( 
Btibshurcf possession.? pi i / pl/i. 
The names of thr .sevrn deeiora 
te-^ arc underlined. 
T/tcpriruipalJfue/uesiti Gerinanv 
arp wrtffen in Caps. 



^u^^-^- 



Won c.rter 
(HoiiccASter 






'Sm ^'-■' 




FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 201 

SECOND EEVIEW LESSOInT. 

Who is the leading French author of the 14th century ? A?is. Froissart, the historian of the 
age, 1337-1410. 

What leading English author lived in the 14th century ? Aiis. Chaucer, author of the Can- 
terbury Tales, 1328-1400. 

What is the siguificauce of these authors? Ans. They indicate the beginnings of the 
modern Italian, French, and English languages. 

When was modern German formed ? Ans. Not till the 16th century. 

What does this indicate ? Ans. A more backward condition of national unity. 

What shows this condition ? (P. 164.) 

Who was French king in 1300 ? In 1400 ? 

In what year began the history of the famous Burgundian dukedom ? (P. 198.) 

Under what king ? 

What province had this king acquired as Dauphin ? 

What other province beside Burgundy did he transfer to another son ? (P. 198.) 

What line was thus founded ? 

How many years of the 14th century are covered by the united reigns of Louis X., Philip Y. 
and Charles IV. ? (P. 196.) 

For what are these kings distinguished ? Ans. For various acts of administrative wisdom, 
which make more effect In the lives of nations than on the pages of books. 

What shows the rise of the lower orders to power and influence in the French state during 
the 14th century? Ans. The "sumptuary" laws of Philip the Fair (against luxury of living) 
and the rebellion of the serfs and of the Third Estate (the common people) after Poitiers. 
During the captivity of King John a merchant, Etienne Marcel, for a moment ruled Paris and 
even France. He was overthrown by the Dauphin, who became soon after Charles V. 

What important event took place in Southeastern Europe in the 14th century ? Ans. The 
Ottoman Turks established themselves in portions of Byzantine Europe. 

What important fact in the history of the Roman Pontiffs belongs to the 14th century ? Ans. 
Their residence at Avignon from 1305 to 1378. 

How long did Avignon continue a possession of the Popes ? Ans. Till the French revolu- 
tion of 1789. 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
FRENCH KINGS OF THE Ioth CENTURY. 

Charles VI a. d. (1380)-1423 

Charles VII., son of the foregoin.^ " 142^1463 

Louis XL, " " •' 1462-1483 

Charles VIIL, " " ' 1483-1498 

Louis XII., 2d cousin of the foregoing " 1498-(1515) 

Orleanists and Burgundians. — Since 1392 Charles VI. had 
been insane. The regency was contested by two parties whose fac- 



202 



FRANCE. 



tions distracted the kingdom. Louis of Orleans, the king's brother, 
was opposed by the king's uncle, Philip the Bold of ''Burgundy," 

who coveted his position and 
his influence. The son of 
this first Burgundian duke 
(his successor in 1404), John 
the Fearless, continued this 
strife with his cousin, and 
in 1407 procured his assas- 
sination. The Orleans party 
was now headed by the 
Count of Armagnac (Arman- 
yak), father-in-law of the 
murdered duke's son. 

Henry V. of England 
resolved to take advantage 
of these disorders and to sus- 
tain his credit at home by 
recommencing the foreign 
war. After the victory of 
Azincourt, in 1415, he con- 
quered the whole of Nor- 
mandy, while party conflicts 
still weakened the French. 
In 1419 an interview between the Dauphin, of the Orleans or Ar- 
magnac party, and John the Fearless, was arranged at Montereau 
(Montero) and the latter was murdered by the Dauphin's attendants, 
in reveno-e for the assassination of the Duke of Orleans. 

Treaty of Troyes. — This led to a formal coalition between the 
immense power of Burgundy (Philip the G-ood) and the English, by 
the Treaty of Troyes, 1420. Henry V. was declared by this treaty the 
successor of Charles YL, whose daughter Catherine he married. The 
English occupied Paris, and after the death of Henry V., in 1422, the 
]'egents for his young son Henry VI. met with continued successes. 




Castle of Pierrefonds. Built by Louis of Orleans. 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY 



203 




Joan of Arc. — The power of the Dauphin, now Charles VII., 
was confined below the Loire, and the English siege of Orleans was 
apparently about to terminate 
in its capture and enable the 
English to overrun the South. 
At this moment France was 
saved by Joan of Arc, a shep- 
herdess of Domremy, on the bor- 
der of Burgundy, which country 
she had learned to detest be- 
cause its duke had sold France 
to the Enghsh. Declaring 
her miraculous mission, she 
raised the siege of Orleans, pro- 
cured the coronation of the 
Dauphin at Eheims, and led 
her countrymen to victory. 
But Joan herself was captured 
by the English and burned as 
a sorceress. , ^ ^ .1, ^^.v, ^ . 

Archers of the 15th Century. 

The Story of Joan of Arc-On the (^^^"^ ^'^ ^^^ P''^""'^' «^ ^"''''''-^ 

84th of February, 1429, the court was visited 

by a poor shepherdess of Domremy. " The King of Heaven," said she to the monarch, " has 
sent me to tell you that you shall be anointed and crowned at Rheims, and shaU rule France." 
She said that mysterious voices had enjoined her to quit her native village, and in the armor of a 
warrior to save her king and country. The youthful heroine of eighteen years was sent to 
Poitiers that her vocation might be tested by the bishop and doctors. "God needs not 
warriors," they said to her, " if it be his will to save France." " The warriors," replied the 
maid, " must fight and God will give the victory." " And what kind of language do your 
voices speak?" asked a doctor. "A better one than yours," replied Joan, with some fire. 
" If you show no better signs to give authority to your words," said the doctor, " the king 
will not trust you with his soldiers, for you would lead them into danger." " I am not sent to 
Poitiers to give proofs of my mission," answered the heroine. " Take me to Orleans and you 
shall see the truth of my words. The sign I am to give is the rescue of that city from siege." 

She was believed at last. The young heroine armed herself with a ewoi-d, pointed out to 
her by the mysterious voices. She held a white standard spangled with golden lilies, and 
bearing, as a pledge of victory, the names of Jesus and Mary. 

On the 1st of April, 1429, in open day, she passed through the English lines and entered the 
beleaguered city at the head of a provision train. On the 8th of May the enemy fled before the 




204 



FRANCE. 



^ipr^^^ssi^ 





youthful maid, leaviug their camp and military equipage in the hands of the French. On that 
glorious day Joan of Arc received her title as Maid of Orleans. 

The heroine might now claim to be 
believed on her word. "The will of 
God," she said to Charles Vn., " is that 
you come to receive the crown at 
Rheims." In a natural point of view, 
the idea seemed absurd and chimerical ; 
such at least was the opinion of all the 
leaders. They were more than eighty 
leagues from that city, w^hich was, with 
all the intervening country, in the 
hands of the enemy. But what is im- 
possible to man is easy to God, and Joan 
of Arc had proved that she was the en- 
voy of God. Charles yielded to her re- 
quest and set out for Rheims with only 
twelve thousand men, without pro- 
visions or artillery. Auxerre, Troyes 
and Chalons successively opened their 
gates. Rheims expelled its English gar- 
rison and received Charles with tri- 
umphal pomp on the 17th of July, 1429. 

During the whole ceremony of the 
coronation Joan, shedding tears of joy, 
stood by the king with her white banner 
in her hand. At the close of the solem- 
nity, Joan threw herself on her knees 
before Charles and kissed his feet. ''My liege," she said with tearful eyes, "now the will 
of God is done. He had decreed to raise the siege of Orleans, and to bring you to Rheims. 
My mission is ended. I would go back to my parents to resume my life as a shepherd- 
ess.'" The lofty simplicity of her words drew tears from every eye. But Joan had become 
the army, the hope, the treasure of France, and Charles could not spare her then. She accord- 
ingly continued her glorious career ; but she had said, "I shall last but another year, or very 
little longer ; I must therefore use it well." The sad prediction was only too strictly 
fulfilled. 

On the 24th of May, 1430, Joau of Arc was taken by the English before the walls of Com- 
piegne (Conpian). K anything could add to her glory it would be the unbounded exultation 
displayed by the enemies of France over their prisoner ; their whole camp resounded with 
cries of joy. The soldiers crowded round to gaze on her whose very name had made them 
tremble. The heroine was taken to Rouen and tried for witchcraft. Peter Cauchon (KOchoN), 
Bishop of Boauvais (BO-va), whose name is a disgrace to the Church and a stain on the page 
of history, dared to condemn the guiltless victim to the stake. 

The execution of the Maid of Orleans will ever remain an infamous blot on the English 
nation (May 30, 1431). Twenty-five years after the death of Joan of Arc, Pope Calixtus III. 
ordered the Archbishop of Rheims to institute an inquiry into the particulars of the case. The 
heroine's innocence was clearly proved and her memory gloriously vindicated. Calixtus pub- 




Crossbowmen ot tho loiu. CciiLiuy. 
{From MS., Pani Library.) 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY 



205 




lished a solemn sentence declaring that Joan of Arc " had died a martyr for her f^iith, her king, 
and her country."— Abbe Dat.ras. 

Acquisition of Acquitaine.— The death of the Maid of 
Orleans did not save the English. By 1454, when the war finally 
closed, they had lost all possessions in France but Calais. Thus, 
as final result of this hundred years struggle, Acquitaine was added 
to the Monarchy. 

Louis XL — The greatest influence on the 
final solidification of France was exerted by 
Louis XL, son and successor of Charles VIL, an 
UDScrupnlous and intriguing nature, wdiose in- 
stincts, however, clearly discerned and assisted 
the popular tendency to national unity. He 

-, , , , T . , . *^ Coin of Louis XI. 

secured to the advancnig geographical solidity 
the moral support of the nation, by his preference for the common 
people, and by his contempt of feudal titles. A footman was his 
herald, a barl}er' his master of ceremonies. 

His great rival was the fourth, last, and most famous Burgun- 
dian duke, Charles the Bold. Charles proposed the conquest of 
Lorraine, then territory of the Germanic Empire, and the acquisi- 
tion of Alsace (Austrian domain, p. 164), which he held in pawn 
from the Emperor Frederick III. He also aspired to the royal title, 
which it lay in the power of the Emperor to bestow. His ambition 
and his life were cut short by the battle of Nancy, 1477. - 

Charles the Bold had refused to receive the money sent to redeem the Alsatians from 
his oppressive extortions. The latter called on the Swiss for assistance, which was accorded, 
and theBurgundian duke accordingly invaded Switzerland. He was decisively defeated m 1476, 
at Granson and Morat. The Duke of Lorraine then retook Nancy, his capital, and obtained 
the victory that cost Charles the Bold his life. The gems from the diadem of the Duke, which 
was found on the battle-field, are dispersed among the regalia of the modern European sover- 
eigns, and many of their most precious jewels are traced to this smgle source. 

Acquisition of the Duchy of Burgundy.— Louis XL pro- 
ceeded to confiscate the French territories of the Burgundian duke- 
dom, namely, the French Duchy of Burgundy and Picardy, both of 



206 FRANCE. 

which have ever since been portions of the French monarchy. The 
daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, Mary of Burgundy, to 
secure her states from farther losses, married Maximilian of Austria, 
emperor after 1493. This marriage laid the foundation of the 
greatness of the House of Austria, which thus acquired Franche- 
Comte, Luxemburg and the jSTetherland Provinces. It also laid the 
foundation for the rivalry of France with the Hapsburgs, the most 
important feature of European history in the 16th and in the 17th 
centuries. 

Acquisition of Anjou, Maine, Provence, and Brittany. — 
Four years after the battle of Nancy, died the last heir of the second 
House of Anjou (p. 198). This House had acquired Provence, by 
adoption, from the Neapolitan line of Anjou, when this dynasty 
died out in 1433, with Joanna H. of Naples. Louis XL inherited, 
by the extinction of this second line of Anjou, Maine, Anjou, and 
Provence, in 1481. His successor, Charles VIIL, added Brittany to 
the crown by his marriage with its heiress. 

Influence of Italian Civilization.— To the weight which 
France was destined to exert in history as the first modern con- 
tinental state, consisting of a united people under a single ruler, 
was now to be added the refinement drawn from the civilization 
of Italy. The two successors of Louis XL — Charles VIIL and 
Louis XII. — were the kings who brought France into direct con- 
tact with Ital}^, and their names will appear in this connection. 



Map Study.— Orleans, on tlie Loire, p. 200 ; Azincourt, in modern Frencli Artois ; Mon- 
tereau, southeast of Paris: Troyes, the same; Domremy, in Lorraine; Kheims, northwest of 
Paris, p. 200 ; Calais, extreme Northern France, p. 200 ; Lorraine, p. 200 ; Nancy, in Lorraine ; 
Austrian Alsace, see Austrian Hapsburg color on this map reaching beyond the Khine, and 
consult matter at p. 164. 

On map for "Europe about 1550" see Duchy of Burgundy and Picardy, with the French 
color, and compare boundary on " Europe about 1400." See Austrian Hapsburg color (purple) 
reaching from Alsace (Elzass) over Franche-Comte and covering the Netherlands. 

For acquisition of Anjou, Maine, and Provence, compare France on the maps for Europe in 
1400 and 1550. 

For acquisition of Brittany, compare the same maps. 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY 



207 



MAP EXPLANATION. 

Modern France compared with France in 1500.- Before 1500 the territory ruled 
by the French king corresponded to that now French with the following exceptions-Bish- 
oprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, added by Henry II. (map for Europe about 1550)- Belgian 
France (Artois), added by Louis XIV., Alsatian France, added under Louis XIV., Franche- 
Comte, added under Louis XIV. (map for Europe in 1713) ; Lorraine, added under Louis XV 
(map for Europe in 1748) ; Nice and Savoy, added under Napoleon RL (modern map). This 
enumeration omits some minor provinces of small extent. 

The steps by which France was g-eog-raphically built up are important, because 
France is the country which most cleariy exhibits the progressive development of modern 
national monarchy out of the hadependent feudal estates. Germany has not even yet attained 
to absolute national unity. It was still a chaotic mass of small principalities in 1500. 

The same process is obscured in England by the fact that the country was absolutely 
ruled, after 1066, by a foreign conqueror (who was only a feudal lord himself at home). Thus, 
after 1066, England was not a feudal country in the full sense of the word, being long under 
strict royal government. Again, the process is obscured in England by the fact that the Wars 
of the Roses, exhibiting really the power and contentions of the Barons, were apparently and 
professedly wars between two different royal claimants. The Barons concealed themselves 
behind the shadow of divided royalty. Under Henry VII., time of Louis XL, England also 

became a modern national state in the 
political sense, but France is the country 
where the logical process can be geo- 
graphically traced by which independent 
feudal provinces, one by one, came under 
the royal power. 

Spain was made a modern national 
state by coalition of two royalties— by the 
marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella and 
union of Aragou and Castile in 1469, and 
by conquest of Grenada from the Moors, 
1492. Once more, then, France is the 
more clearly distinct type of the process 
by Avhich modern nations in general came 
into being. 

The tendency of European coun- 
tries to combine feudal pi'incipal- 
ities under national governments was 
promoted by the formation of national 
languages, after 1300, as opposed to a 
multiplicity of dialects. Common speech 
led to common government. The de- 
mand for the comforts and luxuries of 
modern civilization, which could be only supplied by cities, and free commercial intercourse, 
demanded the overthrow of petty state divisions within the state. Therefore the money power 
(cities) assisted the kings against the land power (feudal nobles). The idea of a nation, involv- 
ing the idea of common protection under common laws, demanded the existence of an arbiter 




French Medieval Costumes. 
{From MSS. qfthe Time.) 



208 FRANCE. 

and visible single head. The great military and physical power of feudalism demanded an 
absolutely strong physical military power to overpower it— absolute monarchy. 

Absolute monarchy is peculiarly and distinctively modern, the means of destroying 
feudalism ; but in later modern times the people, having secured their place and national posi- 
tion, have no longer needed in many countries the protection of absolute royal power, hence 
resort to constitutional monarchy or to republics. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

Who was the Duke of Lorrame, victor at Nancy ? (P. 205.) Ans. Rene the Good, of the 
Second Line of Anjou. This Line also ruled Provence since 1433, and claimed Naples 
since the same time (pp, 206, 219). Rene had acquired Lorraine by marriage (map, p. 200). He 
died in 1480. When his nephew and heir died in 1481, leaving Maine, Anjou, Provence, and 
claims on Naples to Louis XI., Lorraine passed, by marriage of Rene's daughter Violante, to a 
branch of the older Line of Lorraine. Most of it was fief of the Germanic Empire. 

Who were the English kings of the 15th century? Ans. Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VL, 
Edward IV., Richard III., Henry VII. 

What followed the close of the French wars in England ? Ans. The Wars of the Roses- 
civil wars in which the Barons destroyed each other. 

How was the modern monarchy prepared in England ? Ans. By the self-destruction of the 
feudal nobles, and the consequent rise of a new aristocracy of wealth. Very few noble families 
of England can trace back of Henry VII. 

How was it prepared in France? Ans. By the gradual consolidation with the monarchy 
of provinces whose nobles entered the service of the state. 

When did this distinction make itself felt ? A7is. Especially in the 17th century, in the 
inferiority of the Court of Charles II. to the Court of Louis XIV. 

How did the higher society of France distinguish itself in the 16th century? Ans. By 
especial aptitude for the art, culture, and civilization of the Italian Revival of Letters, or 
" Renaissance." 

When did French contact with Italy become especially close ? (P. 206.) 

When had this Italian civilization begun to develop its flower ? Ans. After the indepen- 
dence of the Lombard and other Italian states had been secured by Pope Alexander III. (See 
p. 161 and questions at p. 183.) 

Who became the leading patrons of modern art and literature ? Ans. The Popes of Rome. 

In what country is their influence most evident ? Ans. In Italy. 

What event in the year 1453 assisted the revival of letters ? (P. 136.) 

What had prevented the reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches ? Ans. The political 
jealousy of the Greek Byzantine state toward the Latin world. 

What had the Popes done to achieve this union ? Ans. Next to the defence of the West 
from Mohammedan fatalism, it was their most constant effbrt. 

Who were the guardians of learning through the Middle Ages ? Ajis. Tlie dignitaries of 
the Roman Church and the members of the Religious Orders. 

What history naturally precedes the history of Western Europe after 1500? Ans. An 
account of the civilization of Italy. 

Synchronistic Exercise.— Compare the following Table with the Table by Centuries 
for Germany (p. 170), and unite the two in recitation. 



LEADING EVENTS OP FRENCH HISTORY. 209 

LEADING EVENTS OF FRENCH HISTORY UNTIL 1500. 
2d and 1st Centuries B. C— Roman conquests. 



1st, 2d, 3d and 4th Centuries A. D.— Roman civilization. Christian 
conversion. 



5th Century,— States of German West-Goths, Burgundians, and Franks. 



6th Century.— The Franks conquer all France and South Germany. 



7th Century.— The Frankish state continues (Merovingian Line). 



8th Century.— Arab-Mohammedan repulse. Carlovingiau Line. 



9th Century.— The Empire of Charlemagne founded and divided. North- 
man ravages. Feudal system ; explain it (pp. 152, 153). 



10th Century.— Normandy settled. Capetian Line in the Isle de France. 



11th Century.— The Truce of God. Chivalry develops. French-Norman 
conquests in Naples, Sicily, and England. 



12th Century.— Crusades. Coalition of the Monarchy with the Communes. 
The ''English" possessions in France enlarged. 



13th Century.— Crusades continued. Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, 
Touraine, Poitou, Sainton ge, Limousin, Auvergne, Lan- 
guedoc, Champagne, acquired. Neapolitan Anjous, rulers 
of Naples and Provence. 



14th Century.— Anglo-French wars. Dauphine acquired. Second Line of 
Anjou founded. Burgundian Dukedom founded. 



15th Century.— The Anglo-French wars continue till 1454. Acquitaine, 
Maine, Anjou, Provence, Picardy, Duchy of Burgundy, 
Brittany, united with the monarchy. 



210 



PRANCE. 



CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY TILL 1500. 

Clovis, ruler of Northern France A. d. 486 Dynasty ? 

Conquers the Allemanians after A. D. 497 West Grermany. 

And Visigothic Gaul after •' 507 Southsvest France. 

His successors conquer the Burgundians " 533 Southeast France. 

All South Germany by the same date. 

EIGHTH CENTURY. 

Charles Martel at Poitiers a. d. 732 His title? 

Accession of Pepin. (What Papal acquisition?) " 752 Dynasty? 

XIXTH CENTURY. 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West " 800 Territories ? 

Treaty of Verdun " 843 Conditions ? 

TEXTH CEXTLRY. 

Normandy settled. (By whom ?) " 911 What reign ? 

Accession of Hugh Capet. (Dynasty ?) " 987 Territory ? 

ELEVENTH CENTURY. 

French Normau conquest of Naples and Sicily " 1059 Till when ? 

French-Norman conquest of England " 1066 What reign? 

Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders. (What reign ?). . . " 1099 When lost ? 

TWELFTH CENTURY. 

Second Crusade begins. (Cause? Results?) " 1147 What reign? 

French- Angevin line begins in England with Henry II. " 1154 Territories ? 

Third Crusade begins. (Cause? Results?) " 1189 What reign? 

THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

Philip II. worsts John of England. (What results?). " 1204 4th Crusade. 

Auvergue confiscated to the crown " 1209 What reign ? 

Languedoc acquired after the Albigensian war " 1226 What reign ? 

Louis IX., central date. (Name his brother.) " 1250 Crusades ? 

Champagne acquired before accession " 1285 What reign ? 

Charles of Anjou died. (What territories?) " 1285 



CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY. 211 

FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 

Anglo-Freuch wars after ad. 1327 What reign ? 

Dauphine acquired - I347 Emperor? 

Peace of Bretigny - 1360 Conditions ? 

Dukedom of Burgundy founded. (By whomV) " 1361 Territories? 

FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

Treaty of Troyes " 1420 Conditions ? 

Joan of Arc raises the siege of Orleans " 1429 What reign ? 

The Second Line of Anjou inherits Provence " 1433 How ? 

Close of the Anglo-French wars " 1454 Acquisition ? 

Death of Charles the Bold. (What acquisitions ?) " 1477 What reign ? 

Second Line of Anjou extinct. (What acquisitions?). . " 1481 What reign? 

Charles VIII. marries Anne of Brittany " 1491 Acquisition ? 



FAMOUS BATTLES OF FRENCH MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



Bouvines, 1214. 

Philip II. Augustus. 
Victory. 

Courtrai, 1302 

Philip IV. the Fair. 
Defeat. 

Sluys, 1330. 

Time of Philip VI. 
JN'aval defeat. 

Crecy, 1346. 

Time of Philip VI. 
Defeat. 

Poitiers, 1356. 

John the Good 
Defeat. 

Azineourt, 1415. 

Time of Charles VI. 
Defeat. 

Wancy, 1477. 

Time of Louis XI. 



Significance.— Defeat of John of England's 
effort to retrieve his losses, and proof of the devo- 
tion of the communes to tLe French monarchy. 

Significance.— Tremendous power of the Flem- 
ish cities and their commercial sympathies with 
England. 

Significance.— The naval superiority of Eng- 
land already begins to assert itself. 

Sigmficance.—MnitsLTy weakness of Feudal 
chivalry when combined in large masses. 

Significance— The same. These defeats were 
decided by the English archers and crossbowmen. 

Significance. — The same. Imminent subjuga- 
tion of France by England. 

Significance. — The Bur<Tundian dukedom ceases 
to be a thorn in the side of France. 



212 



FRANCE. 



Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 

Sons 



Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 



FRENCH KINGS OF THE CAPETIAN LINE TO 1500. 

Hugh Capet. What was the royal domain? a. d. 987- 996 

Robert. What event in 1033 ? (P. 159.) " 996-1033 

Henry I. What event in 1059 ? " 1033-1060 

Philip I. What events in 1066, 1077, 1099 ? " 1060-1108 

Louis VI. What Minister and policy V " 1108-1137 

Louis VIL What event in 1147 ? " 1137-1180 

Philip II. Augustus. What events in 1187, 1202, 1204, 1214 ? " 1180-1223 

Louis VIII. What event in 1226 ? " 1223-1226 

Louis IX. What events in 1227, 1249, 1266, 1268, 1270 ?. . . " 1226-1270 

Philip III " 1270-1285 

Philip IV. the Fair. What event in 1285 ? " 1285-1314 

rLouis X " 1314-1316 

,\ Philip V " 1316-1322 

(charles IV " 1322-1327 

Philip VI. of Valois (Genealogy, p. 196). What events ?. . . ^' 1327-1350 

John the Good. What events in 1356, 1360, 1361 ? " 1350-1364 

Charles V. the Wise. What events ? " 1364-1380 

Charles VI. What events in 1415, 1420 ? " 1380-1422 

Charles VII. What events in 1429, 1433, 1454 ? " 1422-1462 

Louis XI. What events in 1477, 1481 ? " 1462-1483 

Charles VIII. What event ? " 1483-1498 

Louis XII. of Valois-Orleans (Genealogy below) " 1498-1515 



BRANCHES OF VALOIS-ORLEANS AND ANGOULEME. 



DESCENT OP LOUIS XII. AND OF FRANCIS 





Louis, Duke of Orleans 
1 


, son of Charles V. 


Charles of Orleans. 
+1465. 




John, Count of Augouleme. 
Charles, Count of Angouleme. 


Louis Xn. 
1498-1515. 




aaude < 


of Frances Francis I. 
+1547. 

Henry IT. 

+1559. 

1 



Francis II. Charles IX. Henry IH. Marguerite of Valois=Henry IV. 
+1560. tl5'<'4. +1589. Bourbon Line. 



ITALY 

BEFORE AND ABOUT A. D. 1500. 



ClVILIZATiON OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 

In the earlier Middle Ages Italy was one of the most backward 
countries in Europe. Before Charlemagne the country had suffered much 
from the barbarism of the Lombards. After Charlemagne the Arabs harried 
the coasts — entirely mastering Sicily, then a territory of the Byzantine emperor, 
after 880. They held Sicily until .the Norman conquest after 1059 (p. 181). 
In the 10th century the country suffered in the Northeast from the savage 
Hungarians, who at the same time were ravaging Germany. 

The political history of Italy after 800 has been summarized in 
the sections relating to Charlemagne and to the later territorial extent of his 
empire, as sustained by the Germanic emperors of the 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th 
centuries. 

At the fall of the Hohenstaufens, after 1254, the Italian States be- 
came practically independent of either an Imperial or Royal power. The Popes 
exercised a general supervision over them, being also themselves temporal 
Italian princes, but never attempted to fetter their independence or cripple 
their progress. The States of Italy were civic, not feudal. The cities absorbed 
the landed proprietors and established for themselves territorial ownerships. To 
the absence of all feudal interference, or royal ownership, is to be attributed 
their unprecedented vigor and greatness, which finds its parallel only in the 
free States of the Greeks of ancient times. 

The Italian civilization was already highly developed in Pisa and in 
"Venice in the Uth century. Other states were not far behind. Among them 
the greatest were Genoa, Milan, Mantua, Padua, Ferrara, Bologna, Florence, 
Siena and Perngia. Many others of smaller size, like Urbino and Eimini, 
were scarcely less important for the history of Italian culture. The Italian 



214 ITALY. 

civilization reached its climax about 1500, blossoming out at that time, and im- 
mediately after, into a perfection of art rivalling the ancient Greek. The 
names of Leonardo da Vinci, of Michael Angelo, of Raphael, Titian, and Cor- 
reggio— the greatest painters of history — all belong to the one generation, 
centering about 1500. 

The greatest modern building, St. Peter's, was begun in 1506 under Pope 



Tiie Sif^tine Chapel, with Wall Paintings by Michael Angelo. On the ceiling, the " Story of 
Genesis ; " at the end of the room, the " Last Judgment." 



Julius II. The names of this Pope and of his successor, Leo X., are household 
words to all lovers of letters and of art. 

Not only in art and in letters, but in governmental administration, 
business relations, diplomacy, and the conventions of modern society, Italy 
leads the modern time. In Florence and in Venice were first prepared the 
census statistics of property, of taxation, of births and deaths, without which 
modern government could not be carried on. Just, regular and systematic 



THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 



215 




taxation for purposes of government, as opposed to irregular and arbitrary 
loans and exactions, still common in Nortliern 
Europe until a considerably later date than 
1500, was usual here before 1400. In this 
country was devised the system of marine in- 
surance. Her bankers were in the early 15th 
century already the main dependence of north- 
ern sovereigns for loans of money. Medieval 
coinage in England was long supervised by 
Florentines, and Lombard Street in London 
still reminds us of the Italian bankers who 
carried on business there. The Pitti Palace in 
Florence is to-day the finest palace in Europe, '%iS'^ ^e^j!^?'' 

and was built by a Florentine banker of the 15th century. 

The manufactures of Valenciennes and Alenqon lace, now so highly prized, 
were borrowed from Italy, and the manufacture 
of Venetian glass still retains its reputation. 

Venice was especially important for its 
commercial relations with the East, and for 
large territorial possessions in the Levant. Its 
ambassadors were the most finished diplomatists 
of the 16th century. The archives of Venice 
are the most valuable in Europe for modern 
studies of this period; so minute and exact 
were the reports of these ambassadors from all 
its various courts. The skill of Genoese navi- 
gators is attested by a famous instance, and 
Columbus had seen Iceland before discovering 
America. 

Ferrara was distinguished for its compact administration, and for the 
high breeding of its Court. Here flourished in the 16th century the poet 
Ariosto, author of " Orlando Furioso," and Torquato Tasso, author of -Jerusa- 
lem Delivered," a poem based on the events of the First Crusade. 

Bologna had the leading university of Europe for the study of jurispru- 
dence and of the Roman law. 

In Padua, medicine and anatomy were especially cultivated. Here at a 
later time, had studied Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the blood-a dis- 
covery possibly anticipated by the Italians. 

Urbino was celebrated for its library, the finest of the time in Europe. Its 




Popo Leo X., 1513-1521. 
(From a tvoodcut of the peiiod.) 



216 ITALY. 

treasures were united with the Vatican collection in the 17th century, and have 
assisted iu securing- that library its undoubted precedence over all others. 

In Florence, the history of Italian painting begins with the names of 
Cimabue and of Giotto, about 1300. (Nicholas of Pisa, a quarter of a century 
earlier, had almost anticipated, in his famous pulpit still to be seen in that 
city, the later perfection of modern sculpture by more than two centuries.) In 
Florence, the great centre of the Italian Artists of the Renaissance (a French 
word meaning Rebirth or Revival of ancient learning and civilization), was also 
especially cultivated the knowledge of the Latin and Greek authors. 

Toward 1500, this knowledge began to be more generally diffused by Italian 
influence over Northern Europe ; extending now to laymen that knowledge of 
the ancient languages which had previously been considered necessary only 
for the clergy. In Florence, the studies of geography and astronomy were also 
assiduously cultivated. From Florentine students of the ancient geographers the 
rotundity of the earth was made known to Columbiis. Copernicus, who first 
of moderns reannounced a fact already known to the ancients (p. 68) that the 
sun is the centre of the planetary system, had spent five years in Italy, 1500- 
1505. His system was published in 1543. 

Influence of Italy on Europe — A modern German writer and high 
authority on Italian history declares that the cultivation of Italian women 
before 1500 was generally superior to that of German ladies in our own time. 
The knowledge of ancient languages, possessed in the 16th century by English 
ladies like Queen Elizabeth or Lady Jane Grey, was entirely Italian in deriva- 
tion. The " Elizabethan " style of architecture, so-called, is the style of the 
Italian " Renaissance," and so also is the later so-called style of " Queen Anne." 
The dependence of the English Chaucer, 14th century, on learning and litera- 
ture of Italian origin is well known. In the late 16th century the name of 
Shakespeare once more reminds us of Italian influence on England. Aside 
from the many plays which are Italian in scene or story, all those of classical 
subjects (borrowed from Plutarch) point in the same direction. In the 17th 
century, the English Milton owed to his Italian travels and studies the classical 
coloring and allusions of his poems. His French contemporaries, Moliere, 
Corneille, and Racine, owe to the ancients their literary inspiration. And here, 
as always in modern history, a classical inspiration points to an Italian influ- 
ence. In the 18th century the English Dr. Johnson pronounced the " Coui'tier," 
by Count Castiglione, the friend of Raphael, to be still the most perfect book 
on manners and good breeding. 

Soon after 1500 the employment of Italian artists and the prevalence 
of Italian fashions in Northern Europe led to the overthrow of Gothic archi- 



THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, 



2ir 



lecture in favor of the style of the " Renaissance," a word applied equally to the 
architecture, to the literary spirit, and general civilization of Italy at this time. In 
the Renaissance style of St. Peter's at Rome were built the famous palace 
facades of Heidelberg, the Escurial Palace near Madrid, the Palace of the 
Louvre in Paris, and St. Paul's in London. Observe in illustrations of these 







St. Peter's at Rome, begun by Pope Julius II. in 1506. The Vatican Palace on the right. 



buildings, for instance in St. Peter's or in the Louvre (under modern French 
history), the revival of classic Greek forms as used in the ornament of the Roman 
ruins of Italy. The streets of every modern city, in which the Renaissance style 
is still general, offer abundant ocular evidence of the long-continued dominance 
of Italian influence on history. 

Italy's Weakness. — But while this civilization was spreading by a thou- 
sand channels over Northern Europe, France, Germany and Spain were engaged 
in the effort to appropriate and rule over the territories in which so much 
wealth, luxury, and cultivation were concentrated. For the Italian states 
boasted all the features of civilization excepting a physically strong military 
power. In this regard, the coarser European nations were all more or less 
superior. Thus the beginning of modern history finds Italy becoming the 
battle-ground of the North. To the greed and ambition of other countries 
her later misfortunes must be attributed, although these warlike expeditions 

10 



318 



ITALY 




:rn^ir:3Pr 





jm^ 



attested her superiority, and served, by closer contact of foreign nations witli 
lier, to increase her influence. Moreover, highly developed civilization had 

brought its own corruptions with 



it. Human selfishness, vice, and 
violence were not lacking to mar 
and spot the picture of her excel- 
lence and her ])erfections. Within 
the limits of this single country 
were concentrated and prefigured 
not only the luxury, wealth and 
culture, but also the diplomatic 
intrigues, state rivalries, and self- 
ish plotting of modern times in 
general. In good and in bad the 
Italy of 1500 was 19th century 
Europe on a diminished scale, but 
with more highly concentrated 
energies and more pronounced 
expression. 



The versatility and refinement 
of Italian culture are illustrated by 
ail anecdote in Vasari's Lives of the 
Italian Painters (written about 1550), 
of a monk named Fra Giocondo. This 
monk was at once painter, architect, 
engineer, philosopher, theologian, horticulturist, and man of letters. As man of letters, 
besides being an excellent Greek scholar, he published an edition of Vitruvius, the ancient 
authority on architecture, and discovered in the Paris Library the greater part of the famous 
Letters of Pliny. He collected ancient inscriptions throughout Italy, wrote on the Commen- 
taries of Cresar, and made a design of the bridge thrown across the Rhine by this Eoman 
general. As architect, he was employed for a time in tbe construction of St. Peter's at Rome. 
As engineer, he turned the course of the river Brenta, which was filling in the laguues of 
Venice, and so preserved this city from ruin. The anecdote relates to his skill as horti- 
culturist, as exhibited in the service of the French king, Louis XII. 

*'Fra Giocondo was a man of universal attainment, and, in addition to the pursuits above 
described, he found pleasure in the most simple occupations, among others, in agriculture and 
gardening. On this subject the Florentine, Messer Donato Giannotti, who was his intimate 
friend during many years that they spent together in France, relates that Fra Giocondo, while 
they were thus living in the French court, once reared a peach tree in an earthen vase. The 
little tree prospered so well, and was loaded with such a large quantity of fruit, that it was a 
marvel to behold. Thereupon he was one day advised by some of his friends to set it in a place 
where the king was to pass, and where he could not fail to see it, which he did. But it happened 
that certain of the courtiers came by first, and these men, as is the fashion of such gentry. 



Interior of St. Petei'a at liome. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 219 

gathered all the fruit off the little tree, to the great displeasure of Fra Giocondo, and what 
they could not eat they scattered along the whole length of the street. The matter coming to 
the knowledge of the king, he amused himself for a time over the jest with his courtiers, but 
then returning thanks to the monk for what he had done, his Majesty caused a gift of such 
value to be presented to him that Fra Giocondo was consoled." 

This story illustrates the refinement of Italian feeling which selected such a present as one 
best worthy of a king, and also the inferior cultivation of Northern Europe at this time, when 
French courtiers had so little sensibility as to destroy the gift. Notwithstanding the manifold 
talents and knowk'dge of Fra Giocondo, he is by no means one of the best known examples 
of Italian versatility. Leonardo da Vinci was at once painter, sculptor, architect, civil and 
militarj'^ engineer, anatomist, musician, poet and author ; and many other similar cases could 
be given. 

POLITICAL HISTORY OF ITALY ABOUT 1500. 

Naples (Southern Italy, below the States of the Church) and 
Sicily, had a history independent of the Civic States of Northern 
and Central Italy. When Charles of Anjou (pp. 162, 194) had de- 
feated, in South Italy, the Hohenstaufen regent Manfred, 1266, 
and the Hohenstaufen heir Conradin, 1268 — the latter, who was be- 
headed in Naples, bequeathed Sicily to the Spanish House of Aragon. 
His half-uncle, Manfi-ed, was related to this House by marriage. 

Sicily was thus transmitted, after the revolt of the Sicilian 
Vespers, 1282 (p. 194), to a branch line of the House of Aragon, 
and was then reunited with the Aragonese line in 1409. 

Joanna II. of Naples, with whom the Neapolitan Line of Anjou 
ended in 1433, had adopted successively as her heirs, first, the 
Second Line of Anjou (p. 198) ; and, second, the Aragonese princes. 
In the dispute which consequently arose, the Second Line of Anjou 
succeeded in obtaining Provence, while the Aragonese claimants 
establislied a collateral line in Naples. But the Second House of 
Anjou maintained its claim to Naples, contesting the validity of the 
second adoption, and transmitted this claim with Provence, Anjou, 
and Maine (p. 206) to the French crown under Louis XL 

Charles VIII., his son, undertook to establish this claim and 
conquer Naples. He was incited to this campaign by Ludovico 
Moro, ruler of Milan (famous as the patron of the great painter 
Leonardo da Yinci). Ludovico wished to supplant his nephew, for 



220 ITALY. 

whom he was regent. In this intrigue he was resisted by his 
nephew's wife, and her father, the King of Naples. War with 
Naples and revolution in Milan were impending. To forestall this 
danger he resorted to the French. 

Hence the Italian Campaign of Charles VIII. The French 
king marched an army through Italy, 1494, to iNaples, and the 
king, Ferdinand II., fled to Sicily. The rapid success of the 
French caused a general coalition of the Italian states, and Charles 
VIII. returned with difficulty to France, leaving part of his army 
behind. This was soon conquered by Ferdinand II., assisted by 
Spanish infantry, under Goiisalvo de Cordova, furnished by Ferdi- 
nand the Catholic of Spain. 

French Claims on Naples and Milan. — When Charles 
VIII. died, in 1498, his successor, Louis XII., of the new line of 
Valois-Orleans, revived the claim to Naples, and added a claim to 
Milan. His grandmother had belonged to the family of the Vis- 
conti rulers of Milan, some time extinct. Both claims represent 
the ambition of the new French monarchy to show its prowess, 
to win new sources of revenue aiul rich possessions in the 
Soutn. 

In 1499 Louis XII. invaded Italy, seized Milan, and then 
allied himself with Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain for conquest of 
Naples in partnership. This was effected in 1501. A quarrel arose 
as to the division of the conquered territory. Gonsalvo de Cordova 
then expelled the French, and Naples (all South Italy below the 
States of the Church) with Sicily now belonged to Spain. 

A turning point in history is marked by the French occu- 
pation of Milan in 1499, and the Spanish conquest of Naples in 
1501, the beginning of a rivalry between France and Spain for 
ascendency in Italy. Both had contested Naples, the rich state of 
the South. Both were soon to contest for Milan, the richest prov- 
ince of the North. Thus does the year 1500 once more reveal itself 
as a point which cannot be passed without a description of the 
power of Spain. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 221 

Map Study.— Italy under the Roman Empire, p. 116 ; under the Ostrogoths, p. 140. 
The Lombards succeeded the Ostrogoths in the 6th century, with a short intervening period 
of Byzantine rule, p. 147. Italy under Charlemagne, p. 154; under Otto the Great and the Ger- 
man emperors, p. 158. 

For Sicily compare these last two maps. On the fii-st it has the Byzantine color, on the 
second, the Arab. Normans in Sicily, p. 182. 

Italy in the 12th century, p. 182 ; still a part of the " Germanic " Empire. Italy in the 1.3th 
century, before 1254, was also under Hohenstaufen rule in Naples and SicCy. 

On map for Europe about 1400, p. 200, see Pisa, Venice, Genoa, Milan, Mantua, Padua, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Florence, Siena, Perugia. 

For Venetian possessions in the Levant, see color of Venice in the "Morea" or Pelopon- 
nesus, same map. It became a Venetian possession somewhat later than the Fourth Cru- 
sade. For Urbino, see map for Europe about 1550, under Charles the Fifth. 

Anjous in Naples and Aragonese in Sicily, same map. Second Line of Aujou in Provence, 
same map. 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ITALIAN AND PAPAL HISTORY. 

FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 

What civilized peoples were there in Italy before the foundation of Rome * (Pp. 76, 77.) 

How many centuries of Italian history are covered by the history of Rome from its founda- 
tion until A. D 476 ? 

What Germanic kingdom does this date recall ? (P. 146.) 

When did Theodoric the Great lead the Germanic East-Goths into Italy ? (P. 146.) 

When did the generals of Justinian expel the East-Goths ? (P. 146.) 

Who was Justinian ? (P. 135.) 

When did the Germanic Lombards replace the Byzantine power in Italy (with exception 
of the Exarchate of Ravenna? (P. 147.) 

Who expelled the Lombards from the Exarchate at a later time, soon after they occupied 
it? (Pp. 14S, 150.) 

What became of the Exarchate ? 

Who overthrew the Lombard rale of Italy ? (P. 154.) 

How was Italy affected by the Treaty of Verdun ? (P. 155.) 

What was its condition after extinction of the line of Lothair ? Ans. Its throne was con- 
tested by various claimants. 

Who reunited it with the territorial empire founded by Charlemagne ? (P. 157.) 

How was this territorial empire diminished under Otto the Great ? How enlarged ? 
(Compare pp. 154, 157.) 

What were the relations between the emperors and popes of the 10th century ? Ans. Gen- 
erally harmonious. 

When did the emperors and popes begin to be at variance ? (P. 159.) 

Were the Imperial territorial rights over Italy then contested ? Ans. No. 

\^^len did Italy begin to shake off the rule of the emperors ? (P. 161.) 

When was she entirely freed from their influence ? (P. 162.) 



223 ITALY. 

SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 

What great Pope of the 5th century saved Kome from destruction ? (P. 145.) 

What gi-eat Pope lived about 600 ? (P. 149.) 

What people was Christianized at this time ? (P, 149.) 

What Pope gave sanction to the Carlovingian line ? (P. 150.) 

What great Pope crowned Charlemagne ? (P. 154.) 

Who was the most learned man in Europe about 1000 ? Ans. Pope Sylvester II. What 
monarchs had he served as tutor when a monk ? (Pp. 158, 180.) What country became Chris- 
tian in his pontificate ? (P. 158.) 

What date fixes the time of Gregory VII. ? (P. 160.) 

What date fixes the time of Urban II. ? (P. 184.) 

What event fixes the time of Alexander III. ? Am. The battle of Legnano. 

When was it ? Ans. 1176. 

What date fixes the time of Innocent III. ? (P. 191.) 

What mission was promoted by this Pope ? (P. 168.) 

What date fixes the time of Boniface VIII.? Ans. The jubilee of 1300. 

What change of residence removed the Popes for a time from Italy ? (P. 201.) 

What was the fate of most of the Popes in the first three centuries of the Christian era ? 
(P. 121.) 

About how many years between Pope St. Leo the Great and Pope St. Gregoiy the (Jreat ? 
Between Pope St. Gregory the Great and Pope St. Leo HI. ? Between Pope St. Leo UI. and 
Sylvester 11. ? Between Sylvester II. and St. Gregory VIL ? Between St. Gregory VII. and 
Urban II. (using the single dates already fixed) ? Between Urban II. and Alexander HI.? 
Between Alexander III. and Innocent IIL ? Between Innocent HI. and Boniface VIII. ? 



THIRD REVIEW LESSO>}^. 

What year precedes by three years the pontificate of Julius II. and by thirteen years the 
pontificate of Leo X. ? Ans. The year 1500. 

How does this year relate to the dates for the Spanish conquest of Naples ? The French 
occupation of Milan ? (P. 220.) 

In what year was begun St. Peter's at Rome ? (P. 217.) 

What famous works of art were begtin in 1508 ? Ans. The ceiling frescoes of the Sistine 
Chapel by Michael Angelo, and the wall paintings of the Vatican by Raphael. 

What great wall-painting preceded these works by just ten years ? Ans. The Last Supper, 
in Milan, by Leonardo da Vinci. 

What is therefore its date ? 

In what year was begun the famous Vatican Collection of Antique Statuary ? Ans. In the 
year St. Peter's was begtin. (See note on the Belvedere Apollo, at p. 34.) 

What Pope made Michael Angelo architect of St. Peter's ? Ans. Pope Paul III., in 1546. 

What is the greatest modern statue ? Ans. The "Moses," by Michael Angelo, in San 
Pietro in Vincttli in Rome, the tomb of Julius II. 

What Pope caused the "Last Judgment " to be painted on the end wall of the Sistine Chapel 
by Michael Angelo? Ans. Paul III., in 1534. 

When did the Christian Crusaders leave Syria ? (P. 191.) 

How soon after did the Ottoman Turks enter Europe ? Ans. In 1356. (See p. 201.) 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 223 

Where were the Popes residing at this time ? (P. 201.) 

What necessity especially redemanded their presence in Italy ? Ans. The mission of com- 
bating Mohammedan encroachment on Europe. 

What was the main political activity of the Popes of the 15th century ? Ans. Organizing 
resistance to the Turks. 

Who was canonized for the heroic defence of Belgrade in this century ? Ans. St. John 
Capistrau. (See history of the Arabs and Turks, Book III.) 

What proves the urgency of the peril ? Ans. Toward the close of the 15th century the 
Turks occupied Otranto, the key to Southern Italy, and the Sultan proposed to feed his horse 
on the altar of the old St. Peter's at Rome. 



FOURTH REVIEW LESSON". 

What success attended the resistance to the Turks ? Ans. They were prevented from con- 
quering any portion of Latin Christendom but Hungary. 

When did the larger part of Hungary fall into their hands ? Ans. In 1526, when religious 
schism had begun to weaken the energies of Europe. 

Who then inherited the rest of Hungary (with Bohemia), and ultimately gained the whole ? 
Ans. The House of Austria. 

Who was emperor in 1500 ? (P. 167.) 

To what House did he belong? 

When did he become emperor ? (P. 167.) 

What marriage had he previously contracted "? (P. 206.) « 

Soon after what battle ? (P. 205.) 

What rivalry was founded by that marriage ? (P. 206.) 

Who was the son of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian ? Ans. Philip, Duke of Austria. 

Whom did he marry ? Ans. Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. 

Who sprang from this marriage ? Ans. The great Emperor Charles the Fifth. 

When was he born ? Ans. In 1500. What rivalry did he inherit from Spain ? (P. 220.) 
What rivalry did he inherit from Austria ? (P. 206.) 

What resulted from this succession of marriage alliances ? Ans. The Spanish monarchy 
became the most powerful in Europe. 

What history therefore must introduce the history of the 16th century ? 

What countries are involved in an account of the period of Charles the Fifth ? Ans. Spain, 
because he was its king. Germany, because he became its emperor. France, because Louis XI. 
had seized Picardy and the Duchy of Burgundy from the Burgundian dukedom, and because 
the Emperors still claimed the right to appoint the Dukes of Milan. Italy, because it became 
the battle-ground of French and Spaniards. England, because this country was sought in 
aUiance by the two rivals. Turkey, because the Turks were in Austrian Hungary. 

What European nations are not involved in the general history of the 16th century ? Ans. 
The nations of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), and Russia. 

When did Scandinavia enter the " game of nations " ? Ans. In the 17th century, with the 
rise of Sweden. 

When did Russia enter into general history ? Ans. In the 18th century, time of Peter the 
Great. 



SPAIN. 

BEFORE AND AETER A. D. 1500, 



SPAIN BEFORE 1500. 

CeltO-Iberian Period. — The Spanish Peninsula was inhabited in pre- 
historic times, partly by Celts, partly by Iberians. Nothing exact is known of 
the Iberian population. The Basques of the Pyrenees are its descendants. 
Their language does not offer points of contact or comparison with any other 
speech. 

Phoenician and Greek Colonies.— The coasts of Spain were colo- 
nized many centuries before Christ by Phoenicians from Syria and from Car- 
thage. Cadiz (Gades) was an old Phoenician colony, and silver was exported 
in such quantity from it that the Phoenician ships are said to have added to 
their cargo chains and anchors of this metal. There were also Greek towns on 
the Northeastern coast after b. c. 600. 

Roman Period. — After the Second Punic War was ended, the Roman 
Republic rapidly gained control of the country. When the Roman Empire 
replaced the Republic, Spain was already quite thoroughly Romanized, and its 
language, like French and Italian, still exhibits this decidedly Latin origin. 

Visigothic Period. — Spain became, after a, d. 415, a portion of the state 
of the Germanic West-Goths (they were confined to Spain by Clovis in 507), 
but the Sue vie northwest corner of the country was not conquered by the 
West-Goths till 585. 

In 711 the Mohammedan Arabs (and Moors of North Africa) crossed 
the Straits of Gibraltar under Tarik. The entire kingdom was conquered from 
the last West-Goth king, Roderick, in a single battle. The Christians main- 
tained their independence only in the strip of country under the Pyrenees 
(Asturia). From this foothold, after Charlemagne had forced the Arabs back 
to the Ebro, the Spaniards began to gain ground on the Mohammedans. 



SPAIN BEFORE 1500 



225 




Portie 



Alhambra. 



{Palace of the Moorish kings at Granada.) 



The whole medieval history of Spain is taken up in this struggle. 
The nature of the Spanish people developed in its lonof contest with the infidels 
a peculiarly zealous, enthusiastic, and 
warlike spirit. 

Influence of the Spanish 
Arabs. — Notwithstanding the an- 
tagonism of the Spanish Arabs and 
Spanish Christians there was much 
intercourse between them. The con- 
tact between the subject Spaniards 
and the Mohammedans, in territory 
ruled by the latter, involved a mixt- 
ure of civilizations. The Arabs had 
especially devoted themselves to the 
technic arts, to medicine, chemistry, 
and the natural sciences, and in these 
departments their influence through 
Spain on Europe was marked. The 
numerals introduced in this way, and called Arabic, were derived from the 
Hindoos, for the Arab conquests extended to India. Many of the Greek 
authors, Aristotle among them, were made known to the Middle Ages by Latin 
translations from the Arabic. 

The justly vaunted Arabian civilization was Byzantine in its origin, and was 
borrowed in the provinces of Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, conquered from East-Eome 
about 640 (ISfohammed died 632). 

Political History. — In medieval Spain there developed after Charle 
mague five or six petty Christian states, but the whole number on the Penin- 
sula was finally reduced to four — the gradually decreasing Moorish state of 
Granada, Portugal, Aragon, and Castile. These two last kingdoms were united 
by the marriage of their rulers, Ferdinand the Catholic and Isabella, in 1469. 
From this union, and from the consequent conquest of Granada in 1492, dates 
the modern national state of Spain. 

The Spanish. Inquisition. — An untemporizing character was developed in Spanish 
Christianity by a spirit of national hostility to foreign Arab and Moorish rule. The noto- 
rious Spanish Inquisition was first established as a pohtical engine against the disloyalty of 
those Moors who had made the sham of a Christian conversion a cloak to their disloyalty to 
the state, in which they continued to live and intrigue after conquest. Undoubtedly its terrors 
have been exaggerated and its procedure more or less unjustly stigmatized. But it is certain 
that its introduction by the Spanish monarchs was antagonized by the protests and efforts of 



226 SPAIN. 

the Popes, as being a secular interference with affairs of the Church. The first establishment 
of the Spanish Inquisition, in the 15th century, led Pope Sixtus IV. to sever diplomatic rela- 
tions with the Court of Spain, and the Inquisitors of Toledo were excommunicated by Pope 
LeoX. 

Map Study.— Spain after the Punic Wars, p. 92 ; under the Roman Empire, p. 116 ; under 
the Visigoths or West-Goths, p. 140 ; under the Arabs, with Charlemagne's " Spanish March " 
and the Christian kingdom of Leon, p. 154. Rise of other Christian states, p. 156. Develop- 
ment of same in the 12th century, p. 182. Portugal, Castile, Aragon, Granada, about 1400, 
p. 200. 

QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON MEDIEVAL SPAIN. 

Date the end of the Second Punic War. (P. 93.) 

The siege of Numantia. (P. 97.) 

The beginning of the Roman Empire. (P. 109.) 

The century of the German invasions. (P. 143.) 

The expulsion of the West-Goths from Prance. (P. 148.) 

The century of Mohammed. (P. 222.) 

The overthrow of the Spanish Visigoths. (P. 150.) 

The victory of Charles Martel at Poitiers. (P. 150.) 

The Spanish conquest of Charftmagne (approximately by the round number of his coronation 
at Rome. (P. 154.) 

The union of Aragon and Castile. (P. 225.) 

The conquest of Granada. (P. 225.) 

In whose reign may England be considered a modern national state ? (.P. 207.) 

What reign marks the final consolidation of modern France ? (Pp. 205, 206.) 

When did Louis XI. die ? (P. 201.) 

How long after occurred the conquest of Granada ? 

When did Henry VII. become king of England ? Ans. 1485. 

How long after occurred the conquest of Granada? 

To what state did Sicily belong in the year 1500 ? Since when ? (P. 220.) 

To what state did Naples belong one year later ? 

To what state did Sardinia, Majorca, and Minorca belong in 1500? Ans. To Spain through 
Aragon ; acquired in the 13th century. 



MARITIME DISCOVERIES AND COLONIAL EMPIRE OF SPAIN. 

The use of the magnetic needle, whicli assisted tlie discovery of new 
countries by facilitating long voyages, came into general use through Flavio 
Gioja (Gioya), native of Southern Italy, at the beginning of the 14th century. 
Exploring expeditions of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa began under 
Prince Henry the Navigator. At his death, in 1460, they had reached Sierra 
Leone. Bartholomew Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope in 1480. 

Italians, and especially Genoese, took part in these voyages, because 




^ >\ \ ^w 



"^ 









^ ^ iLUtHi.r 


The ('1, If of' 




STLAWf?ENCE. 




(fliillfniu/ron n/ '. '/ 



MARITIME DISCOVERIES OF SPAIN 



227 





Spanish Ship of the Fifteenth Century. 
{From a print of the time.) 



of the advantage of a sea route to the East Indies. Since the Crusades the 
Genoese had had trading posts in the Crimea, which, by way of the Don, the 
Volga, and the Caspian, kept open 
a route to the far East. These 
trading posts were broken up by 
the Ottoman Turks when they 
made the Crimea a province in 
1475. Christopher Columbus, a 
Genoese mariner, therefore con- 
ceived the idea of reaching the 
same destination by sailing to the 
west. His idea was drawn from 
Florentine geographers and astron- 
omers, who were again dependent 
for their knowledge on the Alex- 
andrine geographer, Ptolemy, of 
the 2d century a. d. Ptolemy was 
acquainted with the rotundity of 
the earth although he had aban- 
doned the earlier teaching of Alex- 
andrine astronomers as to the revolution of the earth around the sun 
(p. 68). 

Columbus applied for assistance to the Portuguese court, which refused it. 
He then had recourse to Ferdinand and Isabella. The generosity of the latter 
equipped the three vessels with which he reached the Bahamas in 1493. Co- 
lumbus believed that he had reached a portion of the East Indies of which he 
was in search, nor did his later voyages change this idea. In a second voyage, 
1493-1496, he discovered Jamaica and some of the lesser Antilles. On his third 
voyage he reached the main land of South America, 1498. Sebastian Cabot, a 
Venetian mariner in the service of Henry VII. of England, discovered the coast 
of Labrador in 1497 and sailed along the shore of Xorth America as far as 
Florida. 

Spanish Colonies.— It was not till more than a century later that the 
discovery of North America was utilized for settlements (the Spanish Colony of 
Florida excepted). The first colony on the main laud of America was founded 
by Balboa, a Castilian Spaniard, in 1513, on the Isthmus of Panama. Colum- 
bus had examined this territory (together with the shores of Central America) 
on his fourth voyage in 1504. Balboa obtained the first information of Peru. 
The great significance of the American discoveries for Spain begins with the 



228 SPAIN. 

immense riches gained by the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez, after 
1520, and of Peru, by Francisco Pizarro, after 1531. 

Pope Alexander VI. fixed, in 1493, a line of demarcation, running from 
north to south, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, between the Span- 
iards and the Portuguese, giving to the former all discoveries west, to the lat- 
ter all discoveries east of this line. Thus, besides Brazil, the East Indian and 
African discoveries were secured to Portugal. 

The Portuguese navigator Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape of 
Good Hope and reached India in 1498, and a Portuguese commercial empire 
grew up, in consequence of this voyage, along the shores of Africa, of India, 
and Ceylon, which opened relations after 1517 with China and Japan. 

The Portuguese Magellan, in the employ of Spain, sailed through the 
straits named after him, reaching the Philipi)ines in 1521. Here he was slain 
in a combat with the natives, and his companions completed the first voyage 
around the world. 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 

. r Sierrra Leone , ,A. D. 1460 

^ S I Cape of Good Hope ,.. " 1486 

^ I I Bahamas " 1492 

I American Continent and India " 1498 

>^ f First American Colony of Spain " 1513 

§ -g ^ Spanish Conquest of Mexico after. . " 1520 

Q [ Spanish Conquest of Peru after " 1531 



REIGN OF CHARLES V.; BORN 1500, DIED 1558. 

GENEALOGY OF CHARLES V. 

Maximilian of Austria = Mary of Burgund3\ Ferdinand the Catholic = Isabella of Castile. 
Philip I. ■ Joanna. 

Charles] lJo,7,P|^g^p,,,. 

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile had con- 
tinued after marriage to rule their kingdoms as separate sovereigns. 



REIGN OF CHARLES V. 229 

Their daughter and hen*, Joanna, married Philip, Duke of Austria, 
the son of Maximilian and Mary of Bnrgund}^ (p. 206). She be- 
came insane soon after the birth of her son Charles, in 1500. Isa- 
bella died in 1504. Philip, who then assumed the regency of Castile, 
died a year later, and Ferdinand became regent in Castile for his 
grandson and heir till his own death in 1516. 

Cardinal Ximines was the most important person in Spain at 
this time. His wise administration really accomplished the perma- 
nent union of Aragon and Castile. It was he who had induced the 
Castilian estates to accept the regency of Ferdinand, and who pre- 
served order till the arrival of the new monarch. 

Charles I. of Spain had been educated in the Netherlands, 
spoke Dutch, and retained through life many peculiarities of the 
Buroundian Netherlander. His title in 1516 was Charles I. of 
Spain. But this inheritance involved the Spanish possessions already 
gained or soon to be acquired in America, together with Majorca, 
Minorca, Sardinia, Sicily and Naples (p. 220). In 1519 the death 
of Maximilian of Austria, his paternal grandfather, added to these 
possessions the " Burguudian *' inheritance (p. 199) and the Austrian 
territories (p. 164). These last included, since the time of Rudolf 
of Hapsburg, territories in Alsace and South Baden, beside Austria 
proper, with the Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. The " Bur- 
gundian" inheritance included the ''Franche-Comte" and the 
Netherland Provinces (modern Belgium and Holland), with claims 
on the Duchy af Burgundy and Picardy, which had been confis- 
cated by Louis XI. (p. 205). But there was something still to be 
added to these immense possessions, namely, the rights and powers 
of the Imperial Title (p. 154). These had long been in abeyance 
practically, but might by a sovereign sufficiently powerful be again 
asserted. 

The Imperial power, which gave Charles I. of Spain his title 
of Charles V., was not inherited from Maximilian, although he was 
the preceding Emperor. This title was in the gift of the Electoral 
Princes of Germany (p. 165). It was not necessary that the 



230 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 




Charles V. 
(Medal of his time.) 



Emperor should be a German (p. 157) ; as a matter of fact, 
lie ahvays bad been. But there were, after the death of Maxi- 

mihan, two other suitors for this 
distinction, Henry VIII. of 
England and Francis I. of 
France (who succeeded Louis 
XII. in 1515). The chances ap- 
peared to be in favor of the lat- 
ter sovereign. One considera- 
tion turned the scale against 
him, the menacing attitude of 
the Turks (p. 223). Austria 
was the natural bulwark of G-er- 
many against them, and the 
leadership of Germany was 
therefore intrusted to the Haps- 
burg ruler of Austria, Burgundy, Spain, and South Italy. 

Charles IT. was only nineteen years of age. He was thought to 
be of feeble capacity. His manners and appearance gave an impres- 
sion of awkwardness. The very extent of his possessions appeared 
to be an element of weakness, and the electors were by no means 
aware that they had made an emperor who was to reassert the terri- 
torial pretensions of the " Holy Roman Empire" of Charlemagne 
and Otto the Great. During this reign the states of Germany con- 
tinued to retain much of their practical independence, but they were, 
notwithstanding, overawed and dominated by the weight of the 
emperor's character, the power of his dii)lomacy and of his enor- 
mous territorial possessions. 

In Italy the old theory of the '' Empire" (p. 157) gave a turn 
to history which determined the whole later destinies of this country. 
Since the time of the occupation of Naples by Ferdinand the Cath- 
olic, the French had made North Italy the scene of their campaigns. 
In 1512 they lost their conquest of Milan (made in 1499). They 
were expelled by the efforts of Pope Juhus II., whose whole pontili- 



REIGN OF CHARLES V. 231 

cate since 1503 had been devoted to this task, for the Popes were 
the guardians of ItaUan independence. But in 1515, the year of 
the accession of Francis I, this French king reconquered Milan 
after the brilHant victory of Marignano (Marinyano), won by his 
Swiss mercenaries (pontificate of Leo X., 1513-1521). 

The election of Charles I. of Spain as Charles V. of the Empire 
transferred the rivalry between France and Spain, which had begun 
in the contest for supremacy in South Italy (p. 220), to this richest 
province of its fertile northern valley. The Duchy of Milan was 
the key to the rest of Italy, and hence the importance attached to 
its possession. The Emperor still retained the legal power to nom- 
inate its Duke, from the old period of territorial rights over Italy. 

Rivalry of France and Spain in Italy.— The question to be 
decided, by force of arms, whether the Emperor could sustain his 
nominee (a member of the Sforza family, to which Ludovico Moro 
belonged), was now a question whether France or Spain should con- 
trol Italy. For two entire centnries the rivalry between France and 
the Hapsburgs continued to furnish the most important material 
for a history of events in Europe (as opposed to a history of civiliza- 
tion which meanwhile continued to radiate from its Italian centre). 
Therefore let it be remembered that this rivalry began in the seizure 
of the Duchy of Burgundy and of Picardy in 1477, by Lpuis XI. 
(p. 205), whose restitution was demanded by Charles V., as taken 
from the inheritance of his grandmother, Mary of Burgundy; 
that it continued in the disputed claim of France and Spain to 
Naples in 1501, and culminated in the rivalry of Charles V. and 
Francis I. for the Imperial dignity and the control of Milan. 
(Francis I. had encouraged revolts against the new monarchy in 
Spam, another cause of quarrel.) 

Francis refused to vacate North Italy. The generals of 
Charles, who himself had returned to Spain, expelled the French 
from Milan in 1521 and 1522. The pretensions of the Empire 
to Southeast France (p. 159) were now revived, for although 
Charles IV. of Luxemburg-Bohemia had made the French Dauphin 



232 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

his vicar iu these provinces (p. 166) there was here also pretext for 
war ; but the invasion of these territories by the Spanish forces was 
nnsuccessfuL 

A new invasion of North Italy by Francis resulted in his 
defeat at Pavia, 1525. He was made captive and carried prisoner 
to Madrid. To secure his freedom he agreed (Peace of Madrid) to 
cede the French Duchy of Burgund}^, to abandon claims to Milan, 
and to pay a heavy ransom ; but, alleging compulsion, he reopened 
the war on reaching France. 

Pops Clement VII. (1523-1534) now took sides with the 
French ; for the Spanish ascendency threatened to crush Italy under 
the old Imperial pretensions. This led to the sack of Rome, in 
1527, by an army of Germans in the pay of Charles. The Emperor 
(in Spain) disavowed responsibihty for the violence of his agents, 
but the public sentiment of Europe forced him to an accommodation 
with the Pope, who then crowned him at Bologna in 1530. 

Two later wars with France did not reverse the general results 
of the two wars between 1521 and 1529. These results were that 
Spain became mistress of North Central Italy (Milan) as she was 
already mistress of Naples; that a marriage alliance between a 
daughter of Charles V. and Alesandro Medici, a relative of Clem- 
ent VIL, founded the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which replaced the 
Florentine Republic after 1530. The only important independent 
state in Italy after 1530 was the Republic of Venice, which con- 
tinued until the close of tlie 18th century and the times of Bona- 
parte. The small dimensions and diplomatic rivalries of the Italian 
free states, in which modern civilization developed its earliest and 
most beautiful flower, did not permit their continued existence after 
the rise of the strong national monarchies of France and Spain. 
But the spread of Italian culture over Europe began after this period, 
in consequence of the closer relations with Italy, to be the most 
important factor in the development of Northern civilization. 

Addition of Bohemia and Hungary to the Hapsburg 
Territories. — Between the first and second wars of France and 



REIGN OF CHARLES V. 233 

Spain, took place, in 1526, the battle of Mohacz, in Hungary, be- 
tween the Turks and Christians. In this battle the young king of 
Bohemia and Hungary was killed. His sister and heir was the wife 
of Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor, his regent in Austria. It 
was in consequence of this battle that these countries were united 
with the Hapsburg territories. The larger part of Hungary w^as, 
however, held by the Turks for a century and a half. 

In 1529 the Turkish Sultan, Solyman the Great, laid 
siege to Vienna, w^hich by valiant resistance preserved itself from 
capture and Grermany from a Turkish invasion. Charles V. now 
turned his efforts against the Turks, and the army which he col- 
lected preserved Germany from a second invasion in 1532. The 
Turks retired without daring to encounter his forces. 

Expedition to Tunis. — The Emperor next conducted an 
expedition to Africa against the Mohammedan pirates of Tunis, 
and freed their Christian captives, 1535. A later expedition against 
iVlg-iers was less successful. By the public spirit shown in these 
expeditions, Charles V. secured the good will of Christendom in 
general. Francis I., on the other hand, made alliances with the 
Infidels in his two later wars with the Spaniards, wiiich damaged 
his standing in his own time and in later history. 

Meantime the spread of the Lutheran movement in Ger- 
many had already resulted, 1525, in a socialistic outbreak — the 
'•Peasant Wars" — which cost the lives of a hundred thousand 
people. The communist excesses of the Anabaptists in North- 
west Germany alarmed the supporters of morality and social 
order. (The Anabaptists were so named from their rejection of 
infant baptism.) Church property was being confiscated by the 
princes of T^orth Germany, who entered into the '^Eeformation" 
as a business speculation. The Hohenzollern Grand-Master of 
the Teutonic Knights in Prussia (Northeast Germany, p. 168) 
transformed himself into the Lutheran owner of the province 
(held as a fief of Poland) in 1525. 

The threatening invasions of the Turks had been utilized by the 



234 SPAIN. 

Protestant German princes as a means to their own independence. 




Eeview at Barcelona of the Expeditiou ai^^ainst Tunis. Old Tapestry in Madrid. 

The Emperor had been obliged to make concessions to the Protes- 
tants before they would render assistance against the Turks, and 



REIGN OF CHARLES V. 235 

undertook, after 1545, to forbid the farther dissemination of anti- 
CathoHc tenets. 

This led to the Smalcaldian War in 1546. Its name is 
derived from a league of the Protestant German princes formed at 
Smalcalden, in Saxony (1530). The victory of Miihlberg, 1547, 
placed the most important Protestant leader, Frederick of Saxony, in 
the hands of the Emperor, and PhiUp of Hesse v.as soon after made 
prisoner. But the fortunes of war were turned by the defection of 
Maurice of Saxouy, who had been made Elector of this State by the 
Emperor. The later House of Saxony is descended from Maurice. 

The Peace of Passau, 1552, left the religious parties about 
evenly balanced in Germany.* Certain questions relating to the 
restitution of confiscated Church property were left open for future 
settlement. 

In 1556 the Emperor, at this time in the Netherlands, 
formally abdicated and transferred the government of his pos- 
sessions to his brother and to his son. He secured the Impe- 
rial dignity and the Austrian possessions to his brother 
Ferdinand, who founded the line of the Austrian Hapsburgs. 



* Toleration was not usual with the Princes of either confession. The religion of the 
ruler generally determined the religion of the State. Persecutions were common on both sides 
throughout the Reformation period, and it is beyond dispute that they were set in motion on 
both sides by the political rulers from political motives. Francis T. and eminently Henry n. 
his successor, who bitterly persecuted the Protestants in France, as openly assisted them in 
Germany, even by alliance in war. Ehzabeth betrayed the cause of the Protestant Dutch and 
persecuted the Jesuits at home, openly alleging poUtical motives. So the Lutherans of Den- 
mark expelled the Calvinists from the kingdom and refused to harbor the Calvinists who fled 
from France. We can as little defend religious persecution for political motives as for religious 
reasons ; but it is important to know that persecution v. as not the policy of the Roman 
Church. As far as political matters are concerned, it is undeniable that the Protestants were 
the innovators, and it is undeniable that their cause was made the cover of political factions 
from the moment of its inception. It may be urged that in the case of the sovereigns, the tol- 
erance practised by some of them at first, notably by Charles V. for over twenty years, was the 
result of religious indifference. This could not be said, however, of the Roman Church, and 
the continued mildness of the Roman Pontifi's towards the Protestants as individuals is a well- 
authenticated fact of history. The habit of confounding the policy of the Roman Church with 
the policy of certain Catholic sovereigns is not unusual, but we may confidently anticipate the 
dissipation of this error as the truths of hi. tory are better known. 



236 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



He secured the Burgundian, Spanish, and Italian inheritance, 
with the American possefisions, to his son Philip, who became, 
as Philip II., founder of the Spanish Hapsburgs. Charles V. 
died two years later, in Spain. 

Last Years of the Emperor. — " He had buried himself in the monastic seclusion of the 
Convent of St. Just, in Estramadura. Here he wished to hide in solitude the greatness, the 
ambition, and all the vast projects which for half a century had kept Europe in a state of alarm. 
His pastimes were limited to occasional rides on horseback, to the cultivation of a garden, and 
mechanical occupations. He had a passion for horology, and the inability to make two time- 
pieces exactly agree is said to have drawn from him the reflection : ' How absurd was it, then, 
to attempt the establishment of uniformity among men and empires, since I cannot even suc- 
ceed in making two clocks agree.' " 



PERIOD OF CHARLES V. 



Important features of general European history during the time 

of Charles V., besides the mar- 
itime discoveries, were the ad- 
vances made in astronomy, the 
general diflusion of the art of 
printing, the revolution in 
warfare, and tlie rise of the 
Protestants. 

The discoveries of Co- 
pernicus (native of Thorn 
in Prussia proper), who had 
studied in Italy, revived the 
ancient knov^iedge as to the 
movements of the planetary 
system and broadened the 
conception of the wonders of 
the Universe. These discov- 
eries were published in printed 
form in the year of his death, 
1543. The Natural Sciences 

in general began to be more 
Printing Press, 18th Century. 

{Old German woodcut.) closely studied and more sys- 

tematically developed. 
Invention of Printing. — The diffusion of the newly acquired scientific 




PERIOD OF CHARLES V 



237 



knowledge and of the old classic learning was immensely assisted by the inven- 
tion of printing, which came into general use after 1500. The discoverer of this 
art was John Gutenberg, a citizen of Mayence, but long resident in Strasburg. 
Here, about 1440, he improved the older art of cutting on wood by introducing 
movable wooden types for printing entire books. He returned to Mayence in 
1445 and entered into partnership with John Faust and his son-in-law Peter 
Schoeffer. The latter invented cast metallic types. The first book printed was 
a Bible begun in 1450, and published in 1456. The general knowledge of print- 
ing was diflPused by troubles in which Mayence was involved by contested claims 
to its government, and by the consequent dispersion of many citizens. Venice 
became the most important centre of the art. Here were first given to the 
world in printed form most of the classic authors of antiquity. 



The Use of Gunpowder and 

so far revolutionized the art 
of warfare that the 16th cen- 
tury, in this respect also, was 
becoming distinctly " modern." 
The strongholds of the feudal 
nobility of Europe were de- 
stroyed or made useless by the 
new weapons. The courts of 
the monarchs thus became the 
centres of a new national life, 
by which the old local and pro- 
vincial isolation was broken 
dow^n. 

The use of infantry in 



its application to artillery had 




Artillery ; IGth Ceutiuy. Ula Germau woodcut. 



war and of standing armies became general, and thus was overthrown the mili- 
tary importance of the old chivalry. 

The invention of gunpowder was probably known to the Chinese, Hindoos, 
and Arabs, but was rediscovered by a German monk, Berthold Schwarz, of 
Mayence, after 1300, and was first employed for warlike purposes during the 
first half of the 14th century. 

The author of the Protestant movement, Martin Luther, was 
born in 1483, at Eisleben, in Saxony. His family was poor, and his early sur- 
roundings full of hardship. The friendship of a liberal lady, Ursula Cotta, 
furnished him with means for his education. After taking his degree in 
philosophy at Erfurt, he entered its Augustinian convent and received Holy 
Orders in 1507. After visiting Rome in 1510 he was called to the chair of 



238 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



Philosophy in the new university of Wittenberg, by its founder, the Elector 
Frederick of Saxony. Here he began to develop a doctrine exalting faith as a 
means to salvation at the expense of good works. In 1517 he attacked the prac- 
tice of indulgences and the sale then going on in Ger- 
many ordered by Pope Leo X. , to raise money for the 
construction of St. Peter's Church at Rome, and for an 
expedition against the Turks. In the controversy which 
followed, he was finally led to deny the authority of the 
Church Councils and of the Holy See. He publicly 
burned at Wittenberg, in 1.520, the Bull in which his 
errors were condemned by Pope Leo X. , and in which 
his sentence of excommunication was pronounced, 
unless he should retract in sixty days. He was sum- 
^^S^ moned, in 1521, to appear at the Diet of Worms, pre- 
sided over by the Emperor, but made no particular 
impression on this august assembly, and left Worms 
hastily. From this time till his death, in 1546, he 
continued to agitate in favor of the heresy since known 
as Lutheranism. 

John Calvin was born at Noyon, in Picardy, in 
1509. His father was a cooper. Calvin made literary and legal studies at the 
universities of Paris, Orleans, and Bourges. At the latter he imbibed Lutheran 
doctrines. In 1534 he went to Basle in Switzerland, where he published his 
leading work, "The Christian Institutes." He afterwards settled at Geneva, 
where a most rigorous and narrow system of government was established by 
his influence. He died in 1564. His scholar, John Knox, was the leader of the 
Protestant movement in Scotland. 




Ai'quebusier, IBth Ceutury. 
{From an old print.) 



Map Study.— " Western Europe about 1550." Specify the Hapsburg territories and the 
time and way in which they severally became possessions of this family. What countries not 
colored purple were ruled by Charles V. as an emperor ? Specify the division of Hapsburg 
power after the abdication of Charles Y., and the territories allotted to each branch. 

Marignano, see the small section map for Northeast Italy. Duchy of Milan, when would 
the purple color be first in place here ? (P. 239.) Pavia, see section map. Observe dimen- 
sions of Tuscany and Venice. Mohacz— observe the line of Turkish color in Hungary as 
result of this battle, and the purple color over Bohemia and the rest of Hungary also as result. 
Compare extent of Austria in 1400, p. 200. Vienna ; Tunis ; Algiers. Observe the Hohen- 
zollern color (Brandenburg) in Prussia. Trent (mentioned next page), see section map. Smal- 
calden ; Miihlberg ; Passau. 

Thorn ; Mayence ; Strasburg ; Eisleben. (Erfurt is marked on the map for age of Napo- 
leon.) Wittenberg, Worms, Noyon. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. ^39 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE PERIOD OF CHARLES 



V. 



Charles I. of Spain and Y. of the Empire, born 

Conquest of Naples by Ferdinand the Catholic a. d. 1500 

Fourth voyage of Columbus begun '' ^f^ 

Julius II. Pope after " ^^^ 

St. Peter's at Rome begun ' ^^^^ 

Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf,'a" Portuguese possession ..' J?!^ 

Henry VIII. King of England after 

French driven from Milan by Julius II. iu . ^^^ 

First year of Pope Leo X ' /, [' ^^^^ 

Francis I. succeeds Louis XII. and reconquers Milan .... u ^^^t 

Death of Ferdinand the Catholic ; Accession of Charles I.'of Spain .. !-?! 

The Orlando Furioso published (p. 215) .. ^^ 

Syria and Egypt conquered by Sultan ScIimL, from the Mamelukes (p' 191) '^' i-l 

The death of Maximilian of Austria gives " Burgundy " and " Austria"'' to Charle.' I 

of Spam. Charles I. of Spain elected Charles V. of the - Empire " .. i-.q 

Spanish Conquest of Mexico after ., 

Death ofPope Leo X; Accession of Adrian YL'Mageilant ''. !-!" 

Luther at the Diet of Worms ' 

The Turks conquer Rhodes from the Knights of Malta 1' , '^ 

The French expelled from Milan ,^ ^^ 

Pope Clement VH. succeeds Adrian VI. in.. 

Protestantism introduced in Sweden by Gustavus Vasa I !S! 

Battle of Pavia and "Peasant War" in Germany... . .. "Z^ 

Teutonic Knights suppressed in " Prussia ". . . . . 

Battle of Mohacz founds the Austrian power'in Boiiemia and Hungary u , " . 

Sack ofRome by the army of Charles V , f."^ 

Solyman the Great lays siege to Vienna " ^^^^ 

Pope Clement VIL crowns Charles V. at Bologna [[ ^^^^ 

The Florentine Republic becomes the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after '' ^-^ 

Spanish conquest of Peru, after 

Charles V. prevents a second Turkish'invasion'of Geraiany." i! Tl 

Pope Clement VIL succeeded by Paul m. The Jesuit Order foundedV. : .W. : ' ^^ SM 

The Act of Supremacy makes Henry VHI. head of the English Church » .i 

Emperor's Expedition to Tunis 

Bull of Pope Paul HI. against enslaving "the American Indians; ::::.::; " T, 

Charles V. makes his son, Philip II., Duke of Milan . Jl'll 

Council of Trent (closed 1563) opened ,, if 

Death of Luther ; Smalcaldian war begins. ,, '' 

Battle of Miihlberg ^^^ 

Deathof Francis L (successor" H;n;.y U.) an^i H^my VIIL (iuccessoV Edu'ard ^ ) ' ' ' " ''f 

Pope Paul HI. succeeded by Julius III "' 

Peace ofPassau ends the Smalcaldiau war.... [] ^^J^ 

Death ofEdwardVLofEngland; Accession of Mary u Jf^ 

Abdication of Charles V. in 1555 and . . ' . 

Death of Charles V. Elizabeth of England succeeds^Mary ".'.'.■.■ ^^ .' .■;;.■;.■.■;.■.;; .W .^ !! J^ 



240 SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 



SYNCHRONISTIC AND SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN 

EXERCISE. 

Who were the Popes in the period of Charles V. ? Ans. Alexander VI. till 1503, Julius n., 
Leo X., Adrian VI., Clement VII., Paul III., and Julius III. 

By what Pope were the colonial enterprises of Spain and Portugal separated and their later 
colonial empires indicated ? (P. 228.) 

What important exception to the general control of South American colonies by Spain 
resulted from this line of demarcation ? Ans. The Portuguese Colony of Brazil. 

What Popes are especially noted in the revival of art and letters ? (P. 214.) 

What artists did they patronize ? Ans. Among many others, especially Michael Angelo 
and Raphael. 

What Pope had been the tutor of Charles V. ? Ans. Adrian VI., when Bishop of Utrecht. 

What famous goldsmith and sculptor did Clement VII. patronize ? Ans. Benvenuto 
Celhni. 

Under what Pope did Michael Angelo finish the famous tombs of the Medici in the 
Church of San Lorenzo in Florence ? Ans. Under Clement VII. 

Under what Pope was the "Last Judgment" of Michael Angelo painted in the Sistine 
Chapel? (P. 222.) 

Who made him architect of St. Peter's ? (P. 222.) 

Repeat the names of Italian artists so far mentioned belonging to the period of Charles V. 

What other artists are noted ? Ans. Correggio, born near Parma, and Titian of Venice are 
especially famed. 

What event crippled the later development of Italian art V Ans. The sack of Rome. 

Date it. 

What interfered with Papal patronage of art and letters ? Ans. The wars of French and 
Spaniards in Italy after 1521, and the troubles caused by the Lutheran movement. 

What great German artists lived in the period of Charles V. ? Ans. Hans Holbein and 
Albert Durer. 

What was the later development of German art ? Ans. It was cut short by the disturbances 
in Germany. 

In whose pontificate was convened the Council of Trent ? (P. 239.) 

Name the sovereigns of England and France in the period of Charles V. ? (P. 239.) 

Name two Sultans of Turkey in this period ? (P. 2.39.) 

When did the Turks first enter Europe ? Ans. In 1356. (See p. 201.) 

When did they take Constantinople ? (P. 135.) 

When did they occupy the Crimea ? (P. 227.) 

When did they conquer Syria and Egypt ? (P. 239.) 

Rhodes ? (P. 2.39.) 

Part of Hungary? (P. 233.) 

Date their siege of Vienna. (P. 233.) 

Who prevented farther encroachments ? (P. 233.) 

What American countries belonged to Spain under Charles V. ? (P. 228.) 

Who became ruler of England in the year when Charles V. died ? (?. 239.) 



LATER HISTORY OF SPAIN. 



241 



SPAIN, AFTER THE PERIOD OF CHARLES V, 



SPANISH HAPSBURGS. 

^^^^^^«I-(V) A. D. 1516-1556 

Philip II., sou of tlie foreo-oing - 1556-1598 

P™1^"I'" " " " " 1598-1621 

^^^^^y-r' " ' " . 16,l_ie65 

Charles II.," " " •' (Line extinct) " 1665-1700 

The grandson of Louis XIV. of France founded by inheritance, after 1700, the Line of Span- 
ish Bourbons, still reigning, with intermission in the time of Bonaparte, early 19th century 
and in late revolutions. The reigning Spanish Bourbon is Alphonso, proclaimed king 1874. ' 

The Spanish ascendency over Europe continued for a century after 
the death of Charles V., and did not, till the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659 
(reign of Louis XIV.,) yield the 
precedence to France, which, 
however, all this time constant- 
ly contested it. This Spanish 
ascendency is apparent in 
the " Biirgundian " possessions 
within the Germanic Empire, in 
the control of North and South 
Italy (Naples and Milan) and 
in the immense colonial posses- 
sions. (Portugal was also a 
Spanish conquest from 1580 to 
1640.) It is apparent also in 
the high perfection of Spanish 
art in the 17th centm-y— time 
of the painters Velasquez and 
Murillo— and by the reputation 
in the field of letters of Cer- 
vantes (1547-1616), author of Don Quixote ; of Lopez de Vega (1562-1635) 
and Calderon (1601-1687), authors of a multitude of fine plays. 

The Spanish Hapsburg rulers, after Philip II., made no especial 
mark in history as individuals, and their line became extinct in 1700. Mean- 
time Spanish commerce was much crippled in the later 16th century bv the 
English privateers, whose wholesale depredations in time of peace led to the 




Palace of rhe Escurial, near Madrid. 
{Built bi/ Philip n.) 



242 SPAIN. 

Spanish Armada (see English history). Spain was also crippled in the 17th 
century by the commercial wars with the Dutch which grew out of the revolt 
of the Netherlands under Philip II. (see next section). 

Decay of Spanish Power.— The country shows a marked decay of 
vigor in the later 17th and in the 18th centuries. A period of exhaustion 
naturally follows one of great expansion ; but probably the greatest injury to 
the prosperity of Spain was her wealth in precious metals (so highly prized in 
the 16th century) drawn from the American Colonies — just as in our own time 
Germany grew poorer by the extortion of an immense war indemnity from 
France. Any sudden increase in the amount of gold and silver has simply the 
result of raising prices, and it is apt at the same time to cultivate habits of 
prodigality and idleness. The poverty of modern Spain is the result of the 
destruction of the trees and consequent dryness of the soil. This country sup- 
ported 40,000,000 inhabitants in antiquity. It now supports only 8,000,000. 

Map Explanation.— After the extinction of the Spanish Hapsburg Line in 1700 Spain 
and the American possessions passed, by the Spanish Succession War and Peace of Utrecht, 
1713, to a French Bourbon Dynasty. The history of the remaining Spanish Hapsburg terri- 
tories, after that time, wiU be found in later sections relating to the countries which acquired 



GERMANY 



AFTER 1500, 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
GERMANIC EMPERORS OF THE 16th CENTURY. 

Maximilian I. of Hapsburg- Austria a. d. (1493)-1o19 

Charles V., grandson of the foregoing " 1519-1556 

Ferdinand I., brother " " " 1556-1564 

Maximilian II., son " " " 1564-1576 

Rudolf II., son " " " 1576-(1612) 

Austria acquired a new importance in the 16th century by its 
Hungarian and Bohemian territories (to which Silesia belonged) and 
by its position as the barrier for Germany against the Turks. On 
accoant of this position and of the Hapsburg 
influence over the Electors, Austria continued to F 
hold the Imperial dignity. The power to which |; 
this dignity had been raised by Charles V. had ' ^*,^ '/>,;> 
tended to revive the old consolidated sovereignty ^ ,^ \i;~-^^-^ 

of Germany, but had not succeeded in doing so. t^"' ''' " '^-"' ^^' 
Maximilian had established in 1495 an organ i- W^^^^^I 
zation of the empire by departments or "cir- u'^^^0^^^^^ 
cles," which was strengthened by his successor. (m^wwdcut.) 

Each principality was to contribute a certain 
number of men to a common army when needed, and a certain 
amount of money to the common treasury. The authority of an 
Imperial Court was also recognized. But the cumbrousness of pro- 





244 GERMANY. 

cedure and uncertainty of operation in these arrangements were 
extreme. 

The religious divisions of Germany were an additional ele- 
ment of w^eakness and of confusion. It was under these disadvan- 
tages that the Imperial reigns of the Austrian Hapsburgs Ferdi- 
nand I,, Maximilian II., and Rudolf IT. were conducted. 

In the Burgundian portion of the Empire a revolt began 
against the Spanish Hapsburgs in 1566, which lost them their Dutch 
Provinces. Under the cruel severity of the Spanish General Alba 
both the Flemish Catholic and Dutch Protestant Provinces were 
united in resisting the rule of Philip II. After 1579 the humane 
and pohtic conduct of the Italian Duke of Parma, the greatest mili- 
tary genius of his time, brought back the Cathohc Flemish Nether- 
lands to the rule of Spain. The Dutch continued their struggle, 
headed by William of Orange, " the Silent," till his assassination in 
1584. A price had been set on his head as a rebel by Philip II. The 
war outlasted Philip's reign and the limits of the century. 

Germany suffered mucli from tlie so-called E,eformation, politically aud 
economically, in civilization as well as in religion. The great modern authors of Italy, 
Spain, France and England, precede the great German men of letters by centuries. The 
latter belong to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. By the Lutheran movement North Ger- 
many was cut off from the cultivating influences of Southern Europe. South Germany, in 
contention with the North, partly lost the advantages of its geographical contact with Italy. 
After Italy and Spain the precedence in modem civilization belongs to Prance ; but the glori- 
ous development of music in 18th century Germany atalian influence) and of modern German 
literature (under Greek inspiration) atones for the tardiness of the flower. During the 16th and 
17th centuries the leading representatives of the interests of culture and education in the Ger- 
man States were the Jesuits. 

Map Study.— Compare maps for 1400 and 1550 to notice once more Austria's gain in 1526 
of Hungary, Bohemia and Silesia. Observe the position of the Turks. 

Compare maps for 1550 and 1648 for the Netherland provinces and the change of color for 
the Dutch Republic. 

MAP EXPLANATION. 

(The places not entered on the map for 1550 may be found on later maps (among others see 
map for 1816), or in a modern map, which should be used in all cases for comparison and con- 
trast.) 

Next to Austria the most important principality of the south was Bavaria— capital, 
Munich ; of the north, Brandenburg-— capital, Berlin ; of the centre, Saxony— capital, 
Dresden ; of the southwest, "Wiirtemberg-— capital, Stuttgart, and the Palatinate— cap- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



245 



ital, Heidelberg ; of the west centre, the two Hesses and the Archbishoprics of Mayence 
and Treves ; of the northwest, the Archbishopric of Colog-ne and Bishopric of Miinster. 




The Castle at Heidelberg. Built in the 16th Century. 

The free city of Frankfort on the Main was the capital of the Empire and place of coro- 
nation. 

North Germany was mainly Protestant, Soutli Germany mainly Catholic ; but in the west 
the Rhine-Palatinate was Calvinist, while the northwest remained Catholic. Saxony 
was mainly Protestant under a Catholic dynasty. 



CHRONOLOGY OF GERMAN HISTORY IN THE 16th CENTURY. 



Accession of Charles V 

Luther at the Diet of Worms 

Prussia "secularized" by a Hohenzollern, i 

"Peasant Wars," ) 

Hungary and Bohemia, Austrian after . 

Turkish Siege of Vienna 

Anabaptist Communism 

Smalcaldian War 

Peace of Passau 

Ferdinand I., Rmperor. after 

Council of Trent adjourned 

Revolt of the Spanish Netherlands 

Maximihan 11., Emperor after 

Rudolf n.. Emperor after 

Parma secures the Catholic Netherlands for Spain after. 
Assassination of William the Silent 



. D. 1519 
" 1521 

' 1525 

•' 1526 
' 1529 
' 1534 
' .1546 
' 1553 
' 1556 
' 1563 
' 1566 
D. 1564 
• 1576 
1579 
1584 



246 GERMANY 



SYNCHRONISTIC AND SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 

What were the territories of th(_' Spanish Hapsburgs after 1556? 

What Spanish territories were in the Germanic Empire ? 

What were the territories of the Austrian Hapsburgs after 1556? 

What were the territories of the Hohenzollerus after 1525? 

Who was king of Spain in the last half of the 16th century ? {V. -241.) 

How long before the end of the century did he die ? 

Who was queen of England during all this time ? Ans. Queen Elizabeth ; 1558-1603. 

Who were the French sovereigns in the last half of the 16th century? Aiis. Henry II., 
Francis 11., Charles IX., Heniy III., Henry IV. 

What is the origin of the word Protestant ? Ans. At the diet of Spires, 1529. a number of 
German princes entered a Protest against the decisions of the Catholic majority. 

What great Italian author belongs to the latter part of the 16th century ? (P. 215) 

What contemporary great Spanish authors? 

What contemporary great English author ? Ans. Shakespeare. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

GERMANIC EMPERORS OF THE ITth CENTURY. 

Rudolf II. of Hapsburg- Austria. a. d. (1576)-! 613 

Matthias, brother of the foregoing " 1612-1619 

Ferdinaitd II., cousin " " .... " 1619-1637 

Ferdinand III., son of ' " '' 1637-1657 

Leopold I., - " " ■' " 1657-1705 

The Dutch Republic. — After the year 1609 tlie independence 
of the Dutch Itepublic from Spain was practically assured, and a 
twelve years' ti'uce was then made. The Dutch had already begun 
to supplant the Portuguese in the East Indies (p. 228). (Portugal 
and its colonies belonged to Spain from 1580 to 1640.) During this 
century the Dutch became the most important commercial and 
maritime power in Europe. 

Catholic Reaction.— During the last half of the 16th century 
a Catholic reaction bad been gathering force in Germany. Prot- 
estant confiscations of Church lands, continued after the Peace of 
Passau and against its agreements, were a constant source of irrita- 
tion and complaint. This was an important cause of the Thirty 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



247 



Years' War ; but political motives were blended with religious. 
The opponents and antagonists of the House of Austria assumed 
the rehgious colors. This was especially the case in Bohemia, where 



the war began. 



Thirty Years' War. First Period.— In 1618 an order of the Em- 
peror Matthias to close two churches, erected by Protestants of Bohemia on 
ground belonging to the Abbot 
and Archbishop of Prague, 
caused a revolt in this country 
which assumed national pro- 
portions on account of Bo- 
hemian aspirations for a gov- 
ernment sej^arate from Austria. 
The rebels elected a Protest- 
ant, Frederick V. of the Palati- 
nate, son-in-law of James I. of 
England, as their king. They 
were decisively defeated in the 
battle of the White Mountain 
near Prague, in 1620, by the 
army of the new Emperor 
Ferdinand II. Frederick the 
"Winter-king,'' so called, be- 
cause king only for one winter, 
fled to Holland. His States 
were confiscated by the Em- 
peror and given to Bavaria. 

Thirty Years' War. 
Second Period.— Christian 

of Denmark, who was a Prince of the Germanic Empire for Sleswick-Holstein, 
instigated by France (Richelieu), and England (Charles I.), took up arms for the 
cause of the Elector-Palatine in 1625. The Bohemian Count Wallenstein, 
general for the Emperor, and Tilly, general of the Catholic German League, 
invaded and occu[)ied the North German States. Christian of Denmark was 
driven out of Jutland to the Danish Islands. Wallenstein failed only in the 
siege of Stralsund. By the Peace of Liibeck, 1629, Christian received back his 
lost territories on condition cf abandoning the war. 

Thirty Years' War. Third Period.— An " Edict of Restitution" 




Troopers of the Thirty Years' War. 
{From a painting by Terburg, contemporary artist^ 



248 GERMANY. 

was now issued by the Emperor, for tlie return of the Church lands confiscated 
since the Peace of Passau ; but its execution was cut short bj new difficulties. 
His successes in Bohemia and South Germany had been won by troops of the 
Catholic League, of which Bavaria was the head. He now proposed to disband 
them and replace them by the troops of Wallenstein. This general was known 
to favor a consolidated German sovereignty resembling that of France, Spain, or 
England, and the Catholic princes took the alarm and refused to disband their 
army. In union with the Protestant States they demanded and procured the 
displacement of Wallenstein. The Electoral Princes refused to ratify his pos- 
session of the North German Duchy of Mecklenburg, given him, after conquest, 
by the Emperor. The lack of organism and system made it impossible to pay 
the Imperialist troops. The armies levied on the country, and the odium of 
their excesses had fallen upon this general. 

Meantime Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed with 15,000 highly 
disciplined soldiers in Pomerania, in 1630. This invasion was the result of an 
understanding with France, wiiich pursued under the guidance of Cardinal 
Richelieu her traditional policy of weakening the Hapsburgs. Gustavus Adol- 
phus proposed the foundation of a Swedish Baltic Empire, including Northeast 
Germany. His ambition, at a later day at least, even aimed at the Imperial 
crown. 

His arrival was not welcomed by the Protestant States, and Brandenburg 
was forcibly occupied by him. Saxony hesitated between the two parties — was 
invaded by Tilly after his destruction of Magdeburg, and then called in the 
Swedes to assistance. Notwithstanding the coohiess with which Gustavus 
Adolphus had been received, the discipline of his army, which did not plunder, 
won for him the good will of the people. As a general he was constantly suc- 
cessful against the Imperialists. After the victory at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, 
over Tilly, 1631, almost all Germany (excepting Austria) fell into his hands. 
The Saxons, now allies of the Swedes, entered Bohemia and took Prague. 

In this extremity recourse was had by the Emperor once more to Wallen- 
stein. On condition of absolute independence of control, he accepted command 
and raised an army. After some months of indecisive manoeuvres the Swedes 
and Imperialists met at Liitzen in Saxony, 1632. Gustavus Adolphus was 
killed, but Wallenstein was defeated and retired into Bohemia. 

Divisions now rose in the army of the Swedes. Wallenstein's negotiations 
with them, and his inactivity, awakened suspicions at Vienna. He was removed 
from command, and as he continued to negotiate, was assassinated as a 
traitor by one of his officers, at Eger in Bohemia, 1634. The act was sanctioned 
by the Emperor after commission, by a proclamation, dated back, setting a price 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 249 

on the head of Wallenstein. The plans of Wallensteiu and the justice of his 
fate are not certain. His character is perhaps the most mysterious one of his- 
tory. The Swedes were defeated at NordJingen, 1634. They had meantime 
lost all discipline, and the country continued to he mercilessly plundered by the 
soldiers of both parties. 

Thirty Years' War. Fourtll Period.— In 1635, Protestant Saxony 
made peace with the Emperor, admitting the Edict of Restitution with some 
restrictions. But the French now declared war on Austria and Spain (both 
being Hapsburg powers), and Oxenstiern, Minister for the Swedes, in under- 
standing with the French, refused to leave Germany -svithout cession of terri- 
tory and pay for his soldiers. This prolonged the war for thirteen years. 

Character of the Thirty Years' War.— The main original causes of the Thirty Years' 
War were Catholic irritation at the Protestant confiscations of Church property, Protestant 
irritation at the rapid progress of Catholicism, and the general disorder and confusion of an 
empire in which a sovereign authority was neither recognized absolutely nor entirely disputed. 
The long duration of the war was not, however, caused by religious differences, which would 
only explain its first period. This long duration was partly caused by the inability of either 
party to centre itself and present a determined fi-ont. The constant dissensions between 
Lutherans and Calvinists, which were quite as bitter as those with the Catholics, weakened 
the Protestants. The jealousy of Catholic Bavaria and other Catholic states, who refused to 
admit the diminution of their powers and a more absolute subordination to the Emperor, 
weakened the Catholics. The hereditary rivalry of France against the Hapsburgs, which 
opposed the consolidation of Germany by Hapsburg power, and the ambition of Sweden to 
establish a Baltic empire including the coast provinces of North Germany, continued the war 
long after the Germans themselves wished it over. Protestant soldiers fought in the armies 
of Wallenstein ; Protestant states sided with the Emperor, in whole or in part, at different 
times. The Catholic French assisted Protestants in their resistance to the Imperialists. 

To these elements of confusion was added the national spirit of Bohemia, whose Slavonic 
population was subject to the Austrian German rule, and the general lack of cohesion in the 
Austrian state resulting from the absence of ties of blood between its different portions— the 
Hungarians and the Bohemians being of different blood both from each other and from the 
German Austriaus. (The Hungarians are an Asiatic race, originally allied to the Turkish 
family.) 

Since there was no recognized established central authority on either side to raise pay for 
the troops, the armies of both sides lived on the country and supported themselves by plunder. 
The result of the struggle was therefore an exhaustion and depopulation from which the 
country did not recover till after the middle of the 18th century — perhaps has not yet recovered. 
The small towns and villages suffered most. In them it is computed that three-fourths of the 
inhabitants, four-fifths of the live stock, and two-thirds of the dwellings were destroyed. 
Twenty thousand corpses were found in Magdeburg after its destruction by Tilly. 

The Imperial cause corresponded partially to that which had unified the national states of 
France, Spain, and England, but only partially, for the Hapsburgs did not possess sufliciently 
the national confidence of Germany to solidify the country. This was for two reasons. Span- 
ish sj-mpathies, interests, and policy were naturally imputed to the Austrian dynasty, and 



250 GERMANY. 

Austria itself was only in a small part of its whole territories a Germanic state— namely, in 
Austria proper. It was not sufficiently strong in its own territories to control securely the 
rest of Germany, even had religious divisions not existed. 

Peace of Westphalia, 1648. — The call for a congress of 
ambassadors had been issued eight years, and their sessions had 
continued four years, when the Peace of Westphalia was announced, 
so named because sessions were held at Osnabriick and Miinster 
in this proYince. The most important feature of the treaty 
was the total abandonment of the idea of a single G-ermanic sov- 
ereignty. The Emperor retained only a nominal control of the 
German principalities, which, to the number of over two hundred 
and fifty, were recognized as practically independent, with separate 
diplomatic re2)resentation at foreign courts and with independent 
armies. 

(lu the arrangements between Prussia and Austria in 1866, one of these German states was 
omitted from the treaty. It was so small that it was forgotten. 

The Austrian possessions in Alsace were ceded to France. 
They had been conquered during the latter part of the war by a 
German in French pay, Bernard of Weimar. Part of Pomerania 
was ceded to Sweden, with the Bishoprics of Bremen and Ver- 
den (these latter territories were afterward an important part of 
modern Hanover). The independence of the Dutch Republic 
was acknowledged botli by Spain and by the Germanic Empire. 
The independence of the Swiss Republic from the Germanic 
Empire was acknowledged. The Swiss Cantons had been really 
separated from the Empire since the time of Maximilian I. They 
now became free legally. (See p. 195 for earlier Swiss history.) 

In the matter of confiscated Church lands, the year 1624 was 
adopted as the " normal " year — that is, confiscations made before 
that year were to be undisturbed — a provision made in defiance of 
the Papal protest. 

Germany after the Thirty Years' War. — After 1048 the 
numerous German principalities were bound together, for foreign 
affairs, by a political confederation of which Austria was the head, 



1 






ET^ROPE 

hx 1648 

Peace of^VestjjIialia 










' \\'< 



-^ v^ r/itah-n^ ^^\l l^^'u-' ~^^~^^" •'''^ ' 







<)/ji,U 

( 

>J Arhoifu 

Frvdrnrltshua 

IVo/ hnpintj 
SuJerTiCfjintl 
'• tetfeltu 1 1 I 
OnOwnhurq 



JJabshmj pass- put/jh- 
Spanish JIuiishurffS ^= 
Ibyievzollrm poa-a, hliLe, 
Sarrrr pojs. yeUvnr 

France rr>J 

VcTvice lifihJbyeUow 

~PoLantl licfftt pvjrjile 



ThLf rriap iHustrate^ al-yo fhe 
SazndijtCLVo SAcaranian- wttnt 
zmAer OutrUir^^ J7 tvnd JOT 







TriTTrm. 

1 



<■■'. ■ . 

QLOGNx 



SIE paa-i of iambardv "^ 



K El? RATI A 

*Jr^e Uriel 



R(mfc»^^i>a|ji, 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



251 




but absolute despotism of each particular prince became the form of 
government for the people. 

Rise of Prussia. — Under the " Great Elector," Frederick Will- 
iam of Brandenburg, 1640-1688, 
his province of Prussia was freed, 
in 1657, from its feudal depen- 
dence on Poland. Generally in 
alliance and friendship with 
Austria, he took an active part 
in the wars with Sweden, Po- 
land, and France, and raised 
his state to the position which 
secured his successors the royal 
title for their Prussian prov- 
ince, and therewith the appel- 
lation of Prussia for all their 
territories. 

Rise of Austria. — The weakness of the Germanic Empire after 
the treaty of Westphalia exposed it to the encroachments of the 
French king, Louis XIV., whose wars disturbed Europe in the latter 
part of the 17th century. The states of the Hapsburg Emperor, on 
whose armies devolved the duty of defence, were far removed from 
the borders attacked. Xotwith standing this disadvantage in the 
wars with France, Austria increased in strength. After the siege 
of Vienna by the Turks in 1683, when the Polish king, Sobieski, 
rescued the city, rapid headway was made against the Turks in 
Hungary. By the peace of Carlo witz, 1699, they entirely aban- 
doned this country. 

In intellectual and literary effort, 17th century Germany 
is almost a blank. The fashions of the Court of Louis XIV. set the 
tone for all her petty courts. France was the intellectual and 
artistic force of the age. 



Statue of the Great Elector, Berlin. 
{By Schluter, conte^nporary sculptor.) 



Map Study for "Europe in 1648." Prague. (Klostergrab and Braunau are the places 
where churches were closed.) White Mountain is Weissenberg, near Prague. Sleswick and 



252 GERM A X Y . 

Holstein. Jutland, Mecklenberg ; see Europe in 1713. Pomeraaia, Magdeburg, Breitenfeld, 
Leipzig, Llitzen, Eger, Nordliiigen, Osnabruck, Muuster. 

For Treaty of Westphalia, see French color in Alsace, colors of Sweden and Brandenburg in 
Pomerania. See Swedish color at mouth of the Elbe for Bremen and Verden. Compare 
Switzerland on last three maps with Switzerland without local sovereignty and part of the 
German Empire on map for 1400. Observe the separation in locality, so far, between Branden- 
burg and Prussia. Carlowitz is near Belgrade— see modern map of Austria. 

MAP EXPLANATION. 

The importance of the Thirty Years' War and its closing treaty for the history of 
Europe will appear by the reflection that all events of our own century in Germany are 
changes in arrangements then made. Therefore some brief notice of the complicated geog- 
raphy of the states then made territorially independent will be proper. 

A modern map of Germany should be used with this explanation, but many smaller Ger- 
man states are entered on later maps, especially on map for 1816. 

Bavaria was increased in the north by the Upper Palatinate (p. 254). and was given an 
eighth Electoral vote. The Lower (Rhine) Palatinate was returned to the heir of the " Winter 
king." 

Bavaria was about two-thirds of its present dimensions. It was first materially enlarged by 
Bonaparte. 

WUrteniberg- was much smaller than now. It was enlarged at the same time. 

Baden was a small strip of territory on the Rhine. An important part of modern Baden 
then belonged to the Palatinate (capital Heidelberg). Modern Baden was created by Bonaparte. 

Hesse-Darmstadt was considerably smaller than at present (increased by Bonaparte). 

The three large Bishoprics of Mayencfe, Treves, and Colcg-ne (p. 200) were secularized 
(made secular property) by the French Revolution. In 1648 they occupied very considerable 
territories along the Rhine and the Moselle. 

Oldenbiirg (map for 1816) is a territory famed for its Dj'^nasty, which gave rulers to Den- 
mark and intermarried with the Houses of Russia and Sweden. 

Hanover, or Brunswick-Llineburg, was much smaller in 1648 than when absorbed by 
Prussia in 1866. It was afterwards increased by the territories of Bremen and Verden, ceded 
to Sweden in 1648 (see map at p. 234). 

Saxony had been increased since 1635 by Lausitz or Lusatia (p. 228), an addition to its 
northern border from Austrian Silesia. It was made a kingdom and enlarged by Bonaparte. 

The Saxon Duchies — Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Gotha, etc.— were iu 1648 of 
about the dimensions of later time. 

Between and around the various states so far mentioned as enlarged since 1648 
must be imagined the smaller independent states, towns, and Bishoprics, v.hich afterwards 
built up the increase of those mentioned by name. After Bonaparte there were thirty-nine 
German states as against the two hundred and fifty and over recognized by the Treaty of 
Westphalia. 

Pomerania.— In North Germany the province of Pomerania w\as divided between 
Sweden and Brandenburg, the latter having the larger share (p. 250). 

Mecklenburg had about the same dimensions in 1648 as now. 

The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg-.— Among these now both practically and 
legally independent German princes, the Hohenzollerns began, after 1648, to take the leading 
position next to Austria, at least for North Germany. The steady rise of the Electorate of 
Brandenburg to prominence was assisted by its dimension, which, after increase by the 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 253 

Treaty of Westphalia. Mas larger thau any other single German principality, and by the 
thrift and good management of the reigning family, which has always exerted the most im- 
portant personal influence on the fortunes of this state. 

The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg (Prussia) gained, in 1648, the larger (eastern) part of 
Pomerauia, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, and some smaller Bishoprics. 

This House already owned in 1648, besides the little original Hohenzollern terri- 
tory in the angle between Southern Baden and Southern Wurtemberg— first, Anspach and 
Baireuth in South Germany (p. 166), territories now belonging to Bavaria; second, the 
Duchy of Brandenburg, capital Berlin (since 1417) ; third, the province of Prussia, 
in extreme Northeastern Germany, since 1.525. This province (as related, p. 168) was colo- 
nized by crusading knights of the Teutonic Order about 1200. In 1525 the Grand-Master of 
the Order, Albert of Brandenburg (a Hohenzollern), turned Lutheran, secularized its terri- 
tories (made himself their secular ruler) and married. His territory of " Prussia " was in feudal 
dependence to Poland. His line died out in the third generation, and Prussia then passed 
in 1618, to the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg. In 1627 the Elector of Brandenburg acquired 
certain territories in Western Germany— Cleves, Marck, and Ravensberg" (p. 254), im- 
portant as opening the way to the large Prussian gains in Western Germany after the French 
Revolution. 



CHRONOLOGY OF GERMAN HISTORY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

Spanish truce with the Dutch Republic a. d. 1609 

Emperor Matthias, after " 1612 

Thirty Years' War begins -^ 1618 

Emperor Ferdinand II., after " 1619 

Christian of Denmark enters the Thirty Years' War " 1625 

" abandons it ' 1629 

Gustavas Adolphus invades Germany " 1630 

Battle of Breitenfeld " 1631 

Battle of Liitzen ; death of Gustavus Adolphus " 1632 

France declares war on the Hapsburgs " 1635 

Emperor Ferdinand III., after " 1637 

Peace of Westphalia " 1648 

Emperor Leopold I., after " 1657 

The Empire loses (Spanish) Franche-Comle to France " 1678 

Turkish siege of Vienna " 1683 

Burning of the Palatinate by French troops. (Ruins of Heidelberg Castle.) " 1689 

Peace of Carlowitz with Turkey " 1699 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

How long after the beginning of the Thirty Years' War was the landing of the Pilgrims in 
Massachusetts in 1620 ? 

Wlio were the English rulers of the 17th century? Ans. James I., Charles I. (executed 
1649), Cromwell, Charles II,, James II., William IH. 

How long is 1614, the date when the Dutch settled New Amsterdam (New York), before the 
beginning of the Thirty Years' War? 



254 GERMAN Y. 

How long after the Peace of Westphalia was Charles I. executed ? 

How long after this peace is the date for the English possession of New York in 1664? 

Who were French kings of the 17th century? Ans. Henry IV., Louis XIII., Louis XIV. 

In what wars with Louis XTV. was the Empire involved in tbe last half of the 17th century ? 
Ans. In the war with Holland — the German Empire lost thereby (Spanish) Franche-Comte in 
1678— and the war of the League of Augsburg, when the Palatinate was devastated in 1689. 

What was the character of the Spanish Hapsburg rulers ? (P. 241.) 

What power ruled Milan in the 17th century ? (P. 232.) Sicily ? (P. 220.) Naples ? (P. 220.) 
Sardinia? (P226) The Southern Netherlands '? (P. 229.) Mexico and Peru ? (P. 228.) See 
also p. 236 and maps. pp. 228, 250, 

Who was the last Spanish Hapsburg ? (P. 241.) When did he die ? (P. 341.) 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY IN THE 18th CENTURY 

Leopold I. of Hapsburg- Austria a. d. (I657)-1T05 

Josepbi I., son of the foregoing " 1705-1711 

Charles VI., brother of the foregoing " 1711-1740 

Charles VII. (a Bavarian) • ' 1740-1745 

Francis I. (of Lorraine), husband of Maria The- 
resa, the daughter of Charles VI " 1745-1765 

Joseph II., son of the foregoing " 1705-1790 

Leopold II., brother of the foregoing " 1790-1792 

Francis IL, son of the foregoing " r793-(1832) 

Prussia obtains the Royal Title.— In ITOl, by Imperial 
grant, the Elector of Brandenburg obtained the royal title as king 
of Prussia (the title being borrowed from tbe northeast province of 
his territories). In return for this honor he gave active support to 
Austria in the contest for the Spanish Succession. 

Spanish Succession. — The extinction of the Spanish Haps- 
burg line, in 1700, led to a general European war on behalf of the 
rival claims of the Austrian Hapsburgs and French Bourbons. The 
Spanish Hapsburg inheritance was claimed by the second son of the 
Emperor Leopold, Charles — in order to propitiate the public senti- 
ment of Europe, which was opposed to a reunion of the monarchy 
of Charles V. But the second grandson of Louis XIV. was heir by 
the will of the Spanish king. He was favorably received by the 




- ^ K U Jt O I> K ijv 171 i5 

Peace of TJ Ir f 

Voiise oIKoiir-hmt Iteil \ Guelphs UtfUiyfUo 

S/Jtii'iaJ- Btmi-iiau- ~ =S= 
Tlabsbvi-t) p'lrpl 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURF. 255 

Spaniards, had taken possession peacefully of liis kingdom and its 
dependencies. He had also abandoned any pretensions to the 
French throne which might unite France and Spain under a single 
king. A large part of Europe was, however, opposed, in view of the 
immense power of France under Louis XIV. and its various con- 
quests and aggressions, to the union under a French dynasty of 
Spain, Belgium, Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the American 
Colonies — all this was involved in the Spanish inheritance (p. 254). 

France, under Louis XIV., had, moreover, favored the Stuart 
cause in England against the House of Orange (William III., king 
of England since 1688). Both England and Holland, whose interests 
were united under William III. (previously the Dutch Stadtholder 
or President), therefore feared the further aggrandizement of France 
as a menace to his rule. Holland and England were also inspired 
by colonial and commercial jealousy. 

The Duchy of Savoy also took part in the armed opposition 
to Louis XIV. Its position, controlling the passes from France into 
Italy, gave this State importance, and it feared the establishment of 
French power on its eastern border, which would result from inherit- 
ing the Spanish territory of Milan. 

Prussia, Austria, England, Holland, Savoy, were thus 
combined against the Spaniards and French, with whom Bavaria 
sided. In the Turkish wars the Austrian General Prince Eugene 
had developed a marvelous military genius. To his weight was added 
that of the great English General, Marlborough, while the greatest 
generals of Louis XIV. were dead. 

Battles of the war were fought in Spain, North Italy, South 
Germany, and the Netherlands. Generally these battles were crush- 
ing defeats for the French, whose energies had been exhausted in 
three preceding wars under Louis XIV. The most humiliating 
offers were at last made by this king for peace and refused. The 
dismemberment and destruction of France were in prospect, when 
the tenacity of Spain, the disgrace of Marlborough, and the death of 
Joseph I. (which raised his brother to the Imperial throne, thus 



256 GERMANY. 

})reparing a revival of the monarchy of Charles V. if his claim were 
successful), secured the Peace of Utrecht. 

MAP EXPLANATION TOR THE PEACE OP UTRECHT AND CHANGES OF 1720 ANB 1738. 

Compare Europe in 1648 with Europe in 1713. 

The Peace of Utrecht in 1713, accepted by Austria (at Rastadt in Baden) a year later, 
gave her the Southern Netherlands (Belgium), Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. See the Hapsburg 
color without the Spanish cross-lines. The French dynasty retained Spain and the American 
Colonies. See French color in Spain. Thus was founded, by Philip V., the line of Spanish 
Bourbons, still ruling Spain. 

Sicily was ceded to the Duchy of Savoy (see the color), but was transferred to Austria, in 
1720, in eschauge for Sardinia and the royal title (origin of the royal line of modern Italy— the 
kings of "Sardinia " and Savoy). See color of Sardinia, map for 1748. Sicily and Naples were 
receded by Austria to Spain in 1738. See color on map for 1748. This loss was, however, 
balanced by the gain of Tuscany, where the line of the Medici (p. 232) expired in 1737. See 
Austrian color in Tuscany, map for 1748. 

Thus Belg-ium and Milan (see color), after 1713, and Tuscany after 17-38, were Aus- 
trian possessions (the latter ruled by a branch Austrian line). 

The territorial changes of 1738 were the result of the war of the Polish Succession, 
in which France, Sardinia (Savoy), and Spain had supported the cause of the fother-in-law of the 
French king Louis XV., Stanislaus Leczinski, a Polish noble— while Austria and Russia sup- 
ported the cause of the Elector of Saxony. Both had been elected to the Polish monarchy by 
different parties in Poland. The Saxon Elector, Augustus III., obtained the Polish crown. 
Stanislaus Leczinski was indemnified with Lorraine, which was to pass at his death to France 
(see French color of Lorraine in 1748), and Francis of Lorraine, husband of the Austrian heiress, 
Maria Theresa, was indemnified with Tuscany (Peace of Vienna, 1738). 

War of the Austrian Succession.— The death of the Haps- 
burg Emperor Charles VI. in 1T40, without male heirs, was again 
the cause of a general European war. For many years his policy liad 
been directed toward securing the undisturbed succession of his 
daughter Maria Theresa. His cession of Naples and Sicily to Spain 
and his support of the Saxon Elector in the Polish Succession had 
been prompted by the wish to secure the support of other European 
powers to this end. But the moment of his death was, notwith- 
standing, the signal for the AYar of the Austrian Succession, 1740 to 
1748. 

Rival Parties. — England and Holland supported Austria. 
France, Spain, Saxony, Prussia, and Bavaria were leagued against 
her. It was not generally believed that Maria Theresa could in any 
case hold her States together, and each foreign power had interest 




AX,GIEKS 



^///MMim Courlaiutv- 

" •TUiian, 



irUROPE tx 1748 ^ 

\ Peace of j\jx la ChapeUe. 




EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



257 



in some particular portion of her territories. France wanted the 
adjacent Austrian Netherlands^ /. e., Belgium; Spain wanted to 
recover Milan ; Bavaria,, liaving gained the Imperial dignit}^ 
(Charles VII., 1741 to 1745), wanted Austria proper or Bohemia. 
The ambition of Prussia alone was successfnl. 

Frederick the Great, king of Prussia after 1740, conquered 
Silesia and kept it by the mediation of England. 

The participation of England, in these Continental affairs was partly caused by the 
fact that her kings siuce 1714 were the Electors of Hanover, with German interests and terri- 
tory to protect and enlarge. 
(See English color in Bruns- 
wick-Liincburg, or Hanover, 
on map for 1748.) Her league 
with Austria was also owing 
to her colonial jealousy of the 
French and Spaniards, who 
were for the time being the 
enemies of Austria. 

Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle. — ^Frederick the Great 
retired from the war in 1742 
with Silesia (Peace of Breslau). 
(See Prussian color in Silesia, 
map for 1748.) He re-entered 
the war in 1744 and 1745, and 
again made peace on the old 
conditions. 

A general Peace was made 
at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. This peace was, however, simply a truce. Maria Theresa was a 
sovereign of great personal popularity, especially in Hungary (which had not always been so 
devoted to its German rulers). Her husband, Francis of Lorraine, brought back the Imperial 
dignity to the Austrian House in 1745, as Emperor Francis I. Meantime the power of Prussia 
under Frederick the Great had awakened the jealousy of Europe by a standing army of 150,000 
men. But England now supported him. to antagonize France and Spain. 

Seven Years' War. — The Empress was bent on the recovery 
of Silesia. To secure this end she allied with her late enemies, 
France and Spain, in 1756. Russia also joined this coahtion, to- 
gether with Saxony and Sweden. Thus Frederick, supported 
only by British subsidies, had the whole of Europe against him. 
Although his heroic genius and undeniable personal greatness 
gained him everywhere sympathizers, the dismemberment of the 




Ofhcers of Frederick the Great. 
{Design by Menzel.) 



258 



GERMANY 



Prussian monarchy was the avowed aim of his enemies. At the 
most critical moment of the war, after many victories as well as 
crushing defeats, he was saved by the death of the Russian Empress 
Elizabeth. Her successors, Peter III. and Catherine II., withdrew 
the Eiissian armies from Germany. 

The Peace of Hubertsburg (in Saxony), 1763, gave Europe 
rest till the French Eevolution of 1789. 

The contemporary Peace of Paris, whicli closed the Seven Years' War as regards England 
and France, is noted under the histories of these countries, and established important changes. 

This peace raised Prussia to the rank of one of the five Great 
Powers of Europe, the others being Great Britain, Austria, Russia, 
and France. The province of Silesia, which belongs by configura- 
tion and drainage to North Germany, increased the riches and popu- 
lation of Prussia by about one-third, and the First Division of Po- 
land, 1772, closed the gap between the province of Prussia proper 

and tlie Pomeranian 
and Silesian provinces. 
Austria and Russia 
shared in this division, 
as in the two later 
ones (after Frederick's 
death in 1786) of 1793, 
and 1795. The gain of 
Galicia by the first 
division was permanent 
for Austria ; the later 
divisions were modified 
by the changes of the 
French Revolution. 

Divisions of Poland.— 

The history of the whole 18th 

century is inspired by dynastic 

and national selfishness. The lack of principle and of chivalry in its contests renders their 

details uninteresting, although the territorial changes have the greatest importance for the com- 

prehensou of later history. The dismemberment of France (.Spanish Succession), of Austria, 




Palace at Potsdain.. Fiuill V)y F 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 259 

of Prassia, were successively attempted. Only that of Poland succeeded. Its government by 
elective monarchy exposed the country to constant party quarrels. In its diets the right of 
liberum veto—i. e., the right of any one member to veto a law— was recognized. Hence anarchy 
and consequent weakness. 

Prussia under Frederick the Great.— Amid the universal selfishness of the 18th 
century dynasties, the rule of Frederick the Great of Prussia, always despotic, sometimes 
unscrupulous, exhibits decided elements of greatness. In his zeal for industry he forced the 
apple-women of Berlin to knit at their stalls ; but he announced the principle that the monarch 
is the servant of his State. When the Jesuits were driven from all other European countries, 
they found protection and patronage with him and with Catherine II. of Russia. Both these 
sovereigns knew how to value their zeal and ability in education. In conceding this political 
greatness to Prussia, its barrenness in intellectual and artistic interest is also to be conceded. 
Only in the 19th ceutnry has this country shaken off its coarseness and barbarism. 

The Electorate of Saxony was the most important centre of artistic interests and 
liberal education for Germany during the 18th century, before 1775. Here were collected, soon 
after 1750, most of the valued treasures of the famous Dresden Gallery of Paintings. Of 
Saxon birth was the great German critic, Lessing. 

Vienna, by its connection with Italy, was an Important seat of musical culture. 

The little State of Saxe-Weimar became the intellectual centre of Germany after 
1775, and was distinguished as the residence of the great poets Goethe (Gerte) and Schiller. 

In Music the glorious names of Sebastian Bach (Bahk), of Hayden (HIden), Gluck, Beet- 
hoven (BaythOven), and Mozart, belong to 18th century Germany. 

Map Study.— Aix-la-Chapelle, Breslau, Hubertsburg; see "Europe in 1748," p. 256. 
Galicia, see " Europe in 1816." Potsdam is near Berlin, map at p. 254. Weimar, see " Europe 
in 1810." 

The following geographical references are for the table on the next page. See '' Europe in 
1713," p. 254, for Blenheim, Gibraltar, Ramillies (section map), Turin, Madrid, Barcelona, 
Almanza, Oudenarde (section map), Malplaquet (section map), Villa Viciosa, Utrecht (section 
map). See map at p. 256 for Rossbach. 

For Division of Poland compare map for 1748 with map for 1816 (and see Russian history). 
The arrangements of the intervening map for 1810 were not permanent. 

GERMAN WARS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Spanish Succession War. Peace of Utrecht a. n. 1700-1713 

Polish Succession. Peace of Vienna " 1733-1738 

Austrian Succession. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle '■ 1740-1748 

Seven Years' War. Peace of Hubertsburg and Paris •• 1756-1763 

Wars of the French Revolution '• 1792-(1815) 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Frederick I a. d. 1701-1713 

(He had succeeded the Great Elector Frederick William in 1088 as Elector Frederick r\^.) 

Frederick William I., son of the foregoing a. d. 1713-1740 

Frederick TI. the Great, son of the foregoing •' 1740-1786 

Frederick William IT. , nephew of the foregoing " 1786-1797 

Frederick William HI., son of the foregoing " 1797-(1B40) 



360 



GERMANY. 



CHRONOLOGY OF GERMANY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Death of Charles II. of Spam (causes the Spanish Succession War) a. 

Fredei'ick I. King of " Prussia " ' 

Anne, Queen of England, after • 

Marlborough's victory of Blenheim ' 

Gibraltar taken by the English (ceded to England by the Peace of Utrecht) ' 

Death of Leopold I. ; accession of Joseph I ' 

Marlborough's victory of Eamillies • 

Prince Eugene's victory of Turin ' 

The Austrian " Charles III. of Spain " lands in Portugal and conquers Madrid ' 

The Spaniards contine him to Barcelona by the victory of Almanza ' 

Victory of Oudenarde (won by Prince Eugene and Marlborough) ' 

Victory of Malplaqnet ; Marlborough ' 

"Charles III." reconquers Madrid ' 

Spanish victory of Villa Viciosa confines him once more to Barcelona ' 

Death of Emperor Joseph I. places Charles VI. on the throne of the Empire. 
Threatened reunion of the monarchy of Charles V. 

Disgrace of Marlborough 

These events lead to the Peace of Utrecht 

Frederick William I. of Prussia succeeds Frederick I 

Death of Louis XIV. ; Accession of Lottis XV 

Death of Charles XII. of Sweden 

Dukes of Savoy made Kings of Sardinia 

Death of Peter the Great of Russia 

War of the Polish Succession opens 

Closed by the Peace of Vienna 

Frederick II. the Great, King of Prussia 

Death of Charles VI. of the Empire 

Succession of Maria Theresa in Austria. War of the Austrian Succession.. . 

Peace of Breslau. Silesia to Prussia 

Peace of Dresden. Silesia confirmed to Prussia 

Peace of Aix-la Chapelle closes the Austrian Succession AVar. No changes. 

Seven Years' War begins — 

Prussian Victory of Rossbach 

Peace of Hubertsburg ends the war for Austria and Prussia 

Peace of Paris ends the war for England, France, and Spain. 

Death of Emperor Francis I. Accession of Joseph II 

First Division of Poland 

Death of Frederick the Great. Accession of Frederick William II 

French Revolution begins 

Death of Joseph n. Accession of Leopold 11 

Death of Leopold II. Accession of Francis II 

Wars of the French Revolution in Germany open 

Second Division of Poland 

Prussia abandons the war on France. Peace of Basle 

Third Division of Poland 



1700 
1701 
1702 
1704 

1705 
1706 

1707 

170S 
1709 
1710 
1711 

1711 



1713 

1715 
1718 
1720 
1725 
1733 
1738 
1740 



1742 
1745 
1748 
1756 
1757 
1768 

1765 
1772 
1786 
1789 
1790 
1792 

1793 
1794 
1795 



QUESTIONS OX PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 261 

QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 

What territory unites Brandenburg and Silesia with Prussia proper ? Compare "Europe in 
ms" with "Europe in 1816." 

When acquired ? (P. 258.) 

How much increase to Prussia by Silesia ? (P. 258.) When ? (P. 257) 

What territory occupied by Prussia before 1713, passed by treaty from Sweden to Prussia in 
1720 ? Ans. Pan of Swedish Pomerauia. Compare maps for 1648 and 1T48. 

What was gained by this acquisition ? Ans. Control of the mouth of the Oder. 

What territory does the Oder drain ? Ans. Silesia. 

When did Prussia obtain the royal title ? 

What did Prussia gain in 1648 ■" (P. 253.) 

In 1627 ? (P. 253.) 

When were Brandenburg and Prussia united under one ruler ? (P. 253.) 

When did " Prussia " come under a branch of the Hohenzollerns ? (P. 233.) 

When was Brandenburg acquired ? (P. 166.) 

What Hohenzollern territories were held in South Germany till 1816 ? (P. 166.) 

When acquired ? (P. 166.) 

Whei-e is Hohenzollern ? (P. 166, and map, p. 200.) 

Why are the successive steps in the rise of Prussia so important ? Ans. Because they have 
continued until, in the 19th century, Prussia supplanted Austria in the control of Germany, 
and under her influence the German states have been consolidated. 

How has Prussia exercised the ascendency acquired in Germany ? Ans. With great arro- 
gance, especially in her conduct to the Roman Church. 

How may the study of history be a warning for individual conduct ? Ans. Almost every 
nation which has risen to great power has sacrificed its position and lost its ascendency by 
pride and over-confidence, and a nation is composed of individuals. 

SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 

To what kingdom had Silesia belonged ? (P. 243, and map for 1713.) 

When did Bohemia and Hungary become Austrian possessions ? (P. 233, and map for 1550.) 

When was Hungary united with Bohemia ? (P. 166, and map for 1400.) 

Who founded the line of Luxemburg-Bohemia ? (P. 165.) 

To what inheritance had Brandenburg belonged when transferred to the Hohenzollerns by 

Sigismund ? (P. 166, and map for 1400.) 

Who were the English contemporaries of Frederick the Great ? Ans. George 11. and 

George III. 

French contemporaries ? Afis. Louis XV. and Louis XVI. 

What emperor died in the year of his accession ? (Chronology, p. 260.) 

Who was the daughter of this emperor ? How did she become an empress ? (P. 257.) 

What territories became Austrian possessions in the 18th century witJwut re-transfer^ 

Ans. Belg-ium, Milan, and Tuscany. See p. 256, and maps for 1713 and 1748. 
What territories gained by Austria were re-transferred ? 



262 GERMANY. 

WTio were French sovereigns in the 18th centurj^? Ans. Louis XIV., Louis XV., Louis XVI. 

Which of them obtained " Lorraine "' from the '• Empire " ? (P. 256.) How ? When ? 

What is meant by England's " colonial jealousy" ? (P. 257.) A7is. Jealousy of the French 
in North America (p. 287), of the Spanish- American trade, and of tlie French in Hindoostan. 

Who were English sovereigns in the 18th century ? Ans. William III. for two years, Anne, 
George I., George II., George III. 

What other title and power had the last three? Ans. Electors of Hanover. Tht; House 
of Hanover came to the English thi'one with George I. in 1714. 

When was the House of Hanover founded ? (P. 162.) 

When were England and Hanover separated? A7is. At the acces^sion of Queen Victoria 
in 1837. 

Wliat is the first event in point of time of the Seven Years' War ? Ans. Braddock's defeat 
at Fort Duquesne in 1754— the fomial declaration of war not made tiU two years later. 

How many years before the beginning of the French Revolution did the American Revolu- 
tion end ? (P. 260,) 

How many years before the death of FredericlJ the Great is ihe American Declaration 
of Independence in 1776 ? (Chronology, p. 260.) 

How many years before his death is the Independence of the American Colonies in 1783 ? 

How many years after the Seven Years' War ended (p. 260) did the American Revolution 
begin ? 

What Russian Tzar died in 1725 ? (Chronology, p 260.) What Swedish king died in 1718 ? 

What did Prussia gain in consequence ? Ans. The territory mentioned in a preceding 
question relating to 1720. 

What did England gain in consequence ? Afis. The addition (by treaty) of Bishoprics 
Bremen and Verden (conquered before 1713) to Hanover, and consequent control of the Elbe. 

(On map for 1648, see Swedisli color at mouth of the Elbe for Bremen and Verden. On map 
for 1713, see dimension of Brunswick-Liineburg or Hanover.) 



SIMPLIFIED TABLE OF GERMAN HISTORY FROM 1500 TO 1800. 

Accession of Charles V A. d. 1519 

Division of his Monarchy " 1556 

Revolt of the Netherlands under Philip II ' ' 1566 

Thirty Years' War, after " 1618 

Peace of Westphalia " 1648 

The Great Elector obtains the sovereignty of " Prussia " free from 

feudal dependence on Poland " 1657 

Kingdom of Prussia after " 1701 

Peace of Utrecht " 1713 

Peace of Vienna " 1738 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle • " 1748 

Peace of Hubertsburg and Paris " I'^^B 

Death of Frederick the Great '" 1786 



IMPORTANT SYNCHRONISMS. 26 



iMPORTANT SYNCHRONISMS. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England , 1558 

When did Charles V. die ? 

When did Philip II. of Spain begin his reigu ? 

When did Ferdinand I. of the Empire begin his reign ? 

Execution of Charles I. of England , 1049 

When was the Peace of Westphalia concluded 'i 

When was the accession of Louis XIV. ? (See forward, p, 270.) 

George III., King of England 1760 

How is this date related to the accession of Frederick the Great ? 
To the beginning and end of the Seven Years' War ? 

The later history of Germany is connected with that of the other modern states, under the 
heading of the " French Revolution and later Modern History of Western Europe.'' 



FRANCE 

AFTER 1500. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

FRENCH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 16th CENTURY. 

Louis XII. (Genealogy, p. 212) a. d. (1498)-1515 

Francis I. (Genealogy, p. 212) " 1515-1547 

Henry II., son of the foregoino- " 1547-1559 

Francis 11, sou of the foregoing " 1559-1560 

Charles IX., brother of the foregoing " 1560-1574 

Henry III,, brother of the foregoing " 1574-1589 

Henry IV. of Navarre (Bourbon line) " 1589-(1610) 

Louis XII., 1498-1515, was an economical and wise ruler. His 
internal administration received the reward of national appreciation 
which it deserved, and was marked by that absence of "events" 
which is a certain indication of national happiness and prosperity. 

Italian Conquests.— The French were expelled in 1512 from their occupation of Milan 
(p. 220) only to return in the first year of the following reign. The same impulse which drew 
expedition after expedition into Italy from Germany in the time of Otto I. or Barbarossa, was 
now drawing France and Spain in the same direction. In our own time this charm of Italy 
still exerts itself on foreigners. We see now armies of travelers instead of armies of soldiers, 
but the attraction is the same, and the influence of Italy exerts itself now, as it did then, on 
the stranger who beholds this country. 

Italian Influence.— Because the stream of travel took the form of armed expeditions, 
we must not suppose that bloodshed and carnage were the rule. From all complications of 
parties and diplomacy one general result was always the same— viz., increase of Italian influ- 
ence on the habits, fashions, and learning of France. 

Architectural styles are the surest indication of general aspects of civilization, and in no 
country was the Gothic so quickly and so thoroughly overthrown in favor of Italian "Renais- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



265 



sance" fashions in architecture as in the country which invented the Gothic. The "Kenais- 
sance" in architecture is the Italian Revival of Roman-Greek architectural forms. Com- 
pare the Palace of the Louvre with the same Italian style in St. Peter's at Rome. Contrast 
with the Gothic, pp. 189, 197. 

Francis I., 1515-1547, continued the Italian policy of bis 
predecessor, and in 1515 re-entered Milan after the battle of Ma- 
rignano, bolding the ducby till 1522. Tbe campaigns in Italy after 
1521, during tbe long 
rivalry with Obarles 
v., have been already 
summarized under this 
reign. Francis was 
a brilliant and showy 
personality, prodigal 
and brave, a patron 
of Italian art and 
letters. He brought 
the artists Benvenuto 
Cellini and Leonardo 
da Vinci to France, 
and many of their 
countrymen. Da Vinci 
is said to have died 
in his arms. 




Portion of the Palace of the Louvre, 16th century. 



Henry II., bis son, 1547-1559, continued the connection with 
Italy, by marriage before accession with Catharine de Medici, a 
Florentine princess. He attacked the Germanic Empire, in aUi- 
ance with the Protestants, during the Smalcaldian war, and con- 
quered, in 1552, tbe Bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. It was 
to chastise this assault that Charles V. made the peace of Passau 
(p. 235), in order that his hands might be free for a determined siege 
of Metz. But he could not retake this stronghold (lost to France 
in 1871). The war outlasted his abdication, and was inherited by 
Phihp TI. 

The generals of Philip II. gained for him the brilliant victory 



266 



FRANCE, 





French Costumes, 16th century. 



of St. Quentin in 1557, but the resulting opportunity to march on 
Paris was not improved. The Duke of Guise was therefore able to 

reconquer Calais (p. 198) for 
the French in 1558. (An Eng- 
lish alliance with Philip 11. , 
who married Mary of England, 
occasioned this attack of France, 
and cost England this impor- 
tant post, held since Crecy.) 

The Peace of Cateau 
Cambresis (Cambrese) closed 
thew^ar in 1559. It was the last 
w^ar of any importance between 
the French and Spaniards of the 
16th century. The French king 
lost his life in a tournament held to celebrate the peace and the mar- 
riage of Philip II. with his sister. (Mary of England died in 1558.) 

The Hug-uenots.— By the reaction against the profligacy of the court, and by reason of 
injudicious and cruel persecution, Calvinism (p. 238) had made startling progress in this 
reign. The very great majority of the nation still hated the new heresy and its teachers, 
hut many of the middle classes were attracted by its democratic tendency, and the nobles 
began to see in it a formidable engine of opposition to the government. The king leagued 
with the Protestants of Germany, but treated their brethren of France with great barbarity. 
" He hated the Calviuists," says an acute contemporary, "more from reasons of state than of 
religion, fearing lest other states should use them against him as he had used the Lutherans 
against the Emperor." Under the colors of the Huguenots (French Protestants) many of the 
nobles concealed a factious opposition to the crown, and this political use of religious disputes 
led to the later civil religious wars. 

Francis II., 1559-1560, was the first husband of Mary Queen 
of Scots, daughter of James Y. of Scotland. Before she was six 
years old she was sent to the French Court, was educated there, 
and married Francis, then Dauphin, in 1558. Her grandmother 
was the sister of Henry VIII., and Maiy was therefore, in view of 
the illegitimacy of his daughter Elizabeth, the lawful heir to the 
English throne in 1558, 

The marriage alliance "with Scotland had been made to 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



26? 



offset the English alliance with Spain just mentioned, and it was 
the threat of the French to press the claim of Mary Queen of Scots 
to the English crown which had led the English-Spanish coalition 
to the peace of 1559. The king was only sixteen years old, and the 
power was in the hands of his wife's uncles— the Cardinal of Lor- 
raine and the Duke of Guise. He left the crown to a still younger 
brother in a year. 

Charles IX., 1560-1574, was ten years old at his accession. 
His reign was disturbed by civil religious w^ars, and by the in- 
trigues of Catherine, his mother, to hold the regency. To this 
end she made alternate alliance with various factions of the nobles, 
the French Protestants included. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew.— The natural leader of France, by his strict Catholicity, 

and by his popularity with the people as defender of Metz and conqueror of Calais— was the 

Duke of Guise, regent in the preceding reign. Catherine's wish 

to retain the power herself, led her to antagonize the Guise party 

and to league with the Huguenot (French Protestant) faction . This 

gave the latter an apparent strength not commensurate with their 

numbers (they were only about one in a hundred of the French). 

Their relations to the Queen Regent had no element of principle. 

These relations gave their conduct an arrogance, and their demands 

an absurdity of extravagance, which threw the nation into civil 

war. By German and English assistance in the civil war they once 
more made a figure not corresponding to their real influence. Gen- 
erally unsuccessful in battle, a succession of truces accorded them ^^^^^7m?nVan^^^' 
a variety of privileges and an amount of toleration w^hich culmi- 
nated in the admission of Coligny, one of the leaders, to the confidence of the king. Thus 
was brought about the deplorable massacre of St. Bartholomew. The same regent who, for 
selfish reasons, had favored the Huguenots, seeing her influence threatened by a new rival, let 
loose the passions of the Parisian populace against them, and these passions had been in- 
flamed by an arrogant attitude of the Huguenots for which Catherine de Medici was respon- 
sible. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew was not confined to Paris. It extended over France, 
cost the lives of over 20,000 people, according to some computations, and led to a new^ civil 
war. 

Charles IX. died two years later, twenty -four years old, without having ever escaped the 
condition of tutelage to his mother. 

Henry III., 1574-1589, was already (by election) king of Po- 
land, and abandoned this crown for that of France. He was an 
effeminate voluptuary in personal character. His reign was dis- 
tracted by a new element of dissension, for the next legal heir to 




268 FRANCE. 

the crown was a Protestant — Henry, the king of Navarre. (Navarre 
was a small State on the borders of France and Spain.) 

The claim of Henry of Navarre to the Crown was derived from Robert of Cler- 
mont, the brother of Louis IX., and founder of the House of Bourbon by marriage with its 
heiress. Antony, the father of Henry of Navarre, had married Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of the 
little kingdom of Navarre, whence Henry's possession of that State. The family of Bourbon 
had been in disgrace since the time of Francis I., when the Constable of Bourbon took service 
against his country as a general of Charles V. and was killed before the walls of Rome in 152T. 
The Bourbon estates, the Bourbonnais and Marche, were confiscated in 153J. The Constable 
left no direct heirs. Antony of Navarre was descended from a parallel branch of the Bourbon 
line, the Counts of Marche. Henry of Navarre had married Margaret of Valois, sister of 
Charles IX., just before the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

Pope Sixtus V. declared that a Protestant could not inherit 
the crown of France, and Henry was excommunicated. A Catholic 
league was formed, which proposed to depose Henry HI. He had 
lost the respect of the nation by his profligacy. The head of this 
league was the Duke of Guise, son of the duke already named, 
called Balafre from a scar on the cheek. He proposed to take the 
throne, in default of a better claim, as the heir of Charlemagne 
through the line of Lorraine. Henry of Navarre was himself re- 
moved by twenty-two degrees of affinity from the sovereign. 

Thus there were three parties in France — the Protestant, 
headed by Henry of Navarre after tiie death of his uncle Conde ; 
the Catholic league; and the king's party, the weakest of all. 
Henry III. caused the assassination of the Balafre. The odium 
of this act forced him into the alliance of the Protestants, but 
he found his own death also by assassination as he was preparing 
to besiege Paris. 

Henry IV., 1589-1610, had his kingdom and capital still to 
conquer. He was a gallant soldier, but his faith could not be 
allowed to control the destinies of France. The dilemma was partly 
solved in 1593 by his conversion, although the Pope (Clement VIII.) 
refused for some time to withdraw his sentence, and did not accord 
him absolution till two years later. The Protestants were conceded 
extraordinary pohtical privileges by the Edict of Nantes, 1598, which 
closed the Huguenot wars. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 269 

Map Study for •' Europe in 1550," p. 228. Marignano is on the section map for Northeast 
Italy. Metz ; Toul ; Verduii. (St. Quentin in northern France is entered on the map for 1G4S, 
p. 250). Calais. (Cateau Cambresis, in northern France, is entered on the map for 1648.) King- 
dom of Navarre, see map for 1400, p. 200, and 1550. The Bourbon possessions are light red 
on the map for 1550. Nantes is on the Loire. 



CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

Battle of Raveinia ; French victory over the Italian league (.p. 230), but the death 

of the French commander Gaston de Foix caused the evacuation of Milan a. d. 1512 

French reinvasion of Italy. Defeat of Novara. Consequent expulsion ■'■ 1513 

Accession of Francis I. French victory of Marignano '• 1515 

Tournament of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Friendly meeting of Francis I. witli 

Henry VIII. of England '• 1520 

Wars with Charles V. (p. 231) begin '• 1521 

French defeat of Pavia (p. 232) •' 1525 

Peace of Madrid (p. 232) •' 1526 

Second War with Charles Y. and Sack of Rome (p. 232) " 1527 

Peace of Cambrai '' 1529 

Calvin's influence on France (p. 238) after '■ 1535 

Third War for Milan (p. 232) " 1536 

Truce of Nice , " 1538 

Fourth War for Milan (p. 232) " 1542 

Peace of Crespy " 1544 

Accession of Henry II " 1547 

He enters the Smalcaldian War; " 1551 

Conquers Metz, Toul and Verdun , " 1552 

French defeat of St. Quentin " 1558 

Peace of Cateau Cambresis. Accession of Francis II >• 15.59 

Accession of Charles IX " 1560 

Huguenot Wars begin " 1562 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew " 1572 

Accession of Henry III " 1.574 

Accession of Henry IV '' 1589 

Edict of Nantes closes the Huguenot wars " 1598 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

In what French reign was the fourth voyage of Columbus ? (P. 227.) 

The voyage of Magellan ? (P. 228.) The conquest of Mexico and Peru for Spain ? (P. 228.) 

What general features of European history in the 16th century? (P. 236.) 

How long after the accession of Francis T. occurred the Diet of Worms ? (P. 239.) 

When did he fail to secure the Imperial dignity? (P. 230.) 

In what French reign was the \^H)rd Protestant first used ? (P. 246.) 

Who was the English contemporary of Francis I. ? (P. 230.) 

What two sovereigns died in 1547 ? (P. 239.) 



270 FRANCE. 

What were the causes of the French rivalry with Spain ? (P. "231.) 

Why did Henry 11. enter the Smalcaldian War ? Ans. From this same rivalry— the wish to 
cripple the Emperor. 

What Peace resulted? (P. 266.) 

In what French reign did the Council of Trent adjourn ? (P. 239,) 

How long hefore Henry 11. did Luther die ? (P. 239.) 

In what French reign occurred the abdication of Charles V. ? (P. 239.) The revolt of the 
Netherlands? (P. 245.) 

What sovereign died in the year of the Edict of Nantes ? (P. 247.) 

What English sovereign began to reign in 1558 ? (P. 239.) 

In what French reign ? 

Through what French reigns did Elizabeth continue ? (She was Queen till 1693.) 

Name the Germanic Emperors of the 16th century. (P. 243.) 

What additions to the French monarchy in the ICth century ? (Pp. 265. 268.) 

What style of architecture was adopted in France in this period ? 

What style did it replace ? 

In what French reign was begun St. Peter's at Eome ? (P. 21T.) 

In what French reign did England abandon the Roman Church (1534) ? 

In what French reigu were the Hapsburg possessions divided ? (P. 235.) 

Name the English sovereigns of the 16th century. (Pp. 239, 246.^ 

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

FRENCH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 17tii CENTURY. 

Henry IV a. d. (1589)-1610 

Louis XIII., son of the foregoing " 1G10-1(M3 

Louis XIV., son of the foregoing " 1643-(1715) 

DESCENT OF HENRY IV. 

Louis IX. 

Younger son, Robert of Clerniont=Beatrice, heiress of Bourbon. 

Louis of Bourbon. 

[ 

I I 

Line ending with the Constable of Bourbon, 1527. James, Count of Marche. 

John, Count of Marche. 

I 

Louis of Vendome. James, Count of Marche. 

John 

Francis. 

Charles. 
I 
Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre= Antony, +1562. 

Henry IV., King of Navarre and France. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 



.271 




Henry TV. and Maria de Medici. 
( Old medal.) 



The Reign of Henry IV. contiuued till 1610. He was a 
character of great force, and a true Frenchman. Of a genial and 
gallant nature, he quickly won the affec- 
tion of his subjects, and became, per- 
haps, the most popular of all French 
sovereigns. The task of his reign was 
to bind up the wounds of the civil wars, 
and restore prosperity to a devastated 
and impoverished country. In this 
mission he was supported by an able 
minister, Sully, whose interest in 
manufactures, commerce, and agricul- 
ture, laid the foundation for the later 
greatness of France. Canada was colo- 
nized and Quebec founded under his 
administration. 

There were no foreign wars in this reign (an unimportant con- 
test with Spain in the last years of the preceding century excepted), 
but in 1610 Henry prepared to take part in a disputed German 
succession in the lower Rhine territories. This dispute concerned 
the territories of Juliers, Marck, Cleve, and Berg (it terminated after- 
wards in the acquisition made by Brandenburg in the year 1627), 
but the motive of Henry was to attack the Hapsburg ascendency in 
the Germanic Empire. The fact that on the west France had not 
yet attained her natural boundaries, explains this project. The 
Spaniards still threatened the security of France by their possession 
of the Franche-Comte and of the Belgic Netherlands (Spanish 
Hapsburg portions of the Germanic Empire), x^lsace and Lorraine 
were still foreign territories of the same empire, into which the 
three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun projected as the out- 
posts for a farther advance. 

On the eve of "war, when all preparations had been made, 
the king was assassinated, on the day after the coronation of his 
queen, which was intended to give additional stability to her 



'27^ FRANCE. 

regency in his absence. His murderer was named Francis Ravaillac 
(Eaviyak). No motive for this assassination could then be discov- 
ered, nor has any since been assigned. It is not impossible that 
the crime was committed by a fanatical subordinate partisan of the 
parties attacked, to forestall the anticipated successes of so great a 
soldier. 

A daugliter of Henry IV., Henrietta Maria, became afterwards 
queen of Charles I. of England. St. Francis de Sales was his 
intimate friend. 

Paris was so enlarged and beautified by Henry rv. that when the Spanish ambasisador 
saw it, after a few years' absence, be scarcely recognized the city he had left so abject and 
desolate. '' You see," said Henry, " that the father of the family was not at home ; now he is 
here to care for his children, and all goes well with them." The same grave Spaniard one 
day surprised Henry on his hands and knees, and the dauphin riding on his back, while the 
young Duke of Orleans administered the whip. " Monsieur Ambassador," said the king, "are 
you a father?" "Yes, sire." "• Then I may go on with my game." 

Louis XIII., 1610-1643, was nine years old at his accession. 
The regency was conducted by his mother, Maria de Medici (second 
wife of Henry IV., after 1600). She in turn was ruled by one of 
her female Italian attendants, whose husband, 
Concini, thus came to be head of affairs — with 
the title of Marshal D'Ancre. The administra- 
tion of Concini was antagonized by the great 
nobles, and his treatment of the young king 
was disrespectful and overbearing. He was 
killed, at the royal order, by a captain of the 

Louis XIII. Old medal. , , i • ^ /n iv 

body-guard, m 1617. 

Concini was succeeded by a favorite of the young Louis, De 
Luynes (Lean), whose administration was also disturbed by dis- 
order and outbreaks of the unruly aristocracy. This minister died 
in 1620. 

Richelieu, the Bishop of Lugon, had been first employed in 
state business by Concini, and after momentary disfavor was re- 
employed by De Luynes. The influence of Maria de Medici pro- 




SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 273 

cured him the dignity of Cardinal, and introduced him in 1G24 to 
the Council. Here he soon acquired the supremacy and hecame for 
eighteen years the ruler of the state. Under his guidance, Louis 
XIII. was " the first personage in Europe and the second in France." 
The influence of Cardinal Eichelieu was repeatedly attacked by 
conspiracies and cabals. These were generally headed by the brother 
of the king, Gaston, who was for a long time, in default of a direct 
heir, his prospective successor. Maria de Medici also became jealous 
of her former protege, and took the side of the opposition. As 
usual in the politics of the time, the foreign enemy leagued with, 
and incited by intrigues, the domestic revolts. 

Spain was this enemy. A marriage alliance had been made 
with Spain by Concini (Louis XIII. married a daughter of Philip 
III.), but this state was once more antagonized by the national 
policy of Richelieu. His political genius was first apparent in the 
seizure of the Valtellina, the valley and pass leading from Milan to 
the Tyrol, by which the Spanish Hapsburgs moved troops from 
Italy into Germany during the Thirty Years' War. 

The policy of Richelieu had two aims — the elevation of 
the royal power to an absolute sovereignty, and the humiliation 
of the national rivals of France. In both these aims, pursued 
through life with rigid consistency and bold daring, the great 
Cardinal was thoroughly successful. In pursuance of his domestic 
policy, it was necessary to crush the political independence of the 
Huguenot faction. 

Siege of Rochelle.— The Edict of Nantes had not only given the 
Protestants toleration, it had also granted political and military self-government 
to Eochelle, the great commercial centre of the South, and to other soutliern 
towns. These were consequently the centres of every new intrigue or revolt 
against the monarchy. Cardinal Richelieu therefore began, in 1627, the siege 
of Rochelle, which he conducted in person. Charles I. of England sent two 
expeditions, the first under his favorite, Buckingham, to its assistance. Both 
failed. A great dyke had been constructed to prevent the eutrance of vessels 
to the harbor, and after an obstinate resistance the town was reduced by 



2Y4 



PRANCE 



hunger. Cardinal Richelieu abolished the existence of the state within the 
state, but continued the religious toleration of the Huguenots. 




French Infantry. Sketch by Callot, 17th century. 



In his treatment of the great nobles be showed unsparing 
severity when it was demanded. Eesting on the support of a body 
of "notables'' of the upper middle class, the destruction of thf* 
castles of the aristocracy was accomplished and their power was 
therewith broken. 

The foreign policy of Richelieu supported the English Par- 
liament against Charles I., the national aspirations of Portugal, the 
freedom of the Dutch Republic, and the independence of the Ger- 
man States from a Hapsburg ascendency. By supporting the move- 
ments which the logic of events had destined to success, he estab- 
lished the security and greatness of France among them. 

The participation of France in the Thirty Years' War, 
after 1635, involved a war on both branches of the Hapsburgs. In 
this war the Austrian Hapsburgs suffered most severely, but Eich- 
elieu conquered Artois (Arfcwah) from the Spanish l^etherlands, and 
by taking Roussillon (Roos-i-yon) from Spain carried the French 
border to the Pyrenees. 

The Peace of Westphalia was made after the deaths of the Car- 
dinal and of Louis XIII. ; but its gain for France (Alsace) was the 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 



275 



result of bis policy, as was the renewed independence of Portugal 
after 1G40 (p. 241). 

At home he built the Palais Cardinal, since called the Palais Royal; established the 
French Academy 1635, and by his patronage of learning created the generation which made 
the glory of the fourteenth Louis. The great College of the Sorbonne, founded in the 13th 
century, was especially favored and enlarged by Richelieu. He died on the 4th of December, 
1642, in the arms of a Carmelite friar. 

With all his political greatness Richelieu was an earnest Catholic. He did much to estab- 
lish that spirit which has done such service to religion in our own time ; the spirit which finds 
all political beliefs consistent with a Catholic faith and finds therefore no grounds against 
political fellowship with Protestants. It is conceded that his policy opens the period when 
religious differences ceased to occasion religious wars. This remark applies to the statesman- 
ship and policy of the European nations, for in the action of the Roman Pontiffs periods have 
made no difference in this respect. (The Crusades were undertaken to protect the Christians 
from insult and to protect Christian civilization from destruction. The Albigensian war was 
undertaken for the preservation of social order and morality in Southern Europe.) 

The greatness of Kich- 
elieu consisted in a wise esti- 
mate of the possible, combined 
with an unswerving energy of 
resolution in its accomplish- 
ment, and his despotism of pro- 
cedure was accompanied by that 
unselfishness of pm*pose which 
commands respect by its abso- 
lute devotion. On his death-bed, 
pressed to forgive his enemies, 
he replied, " I have none but 
those of the State." This charac- 
ter was recognized and appre- 
ciated by Louis XIII., whose 
greatness it is to have made the 
Cardinal king. 

The character of Louis 
XIII. was pure, his interests 
elevated and noble. A musical 
air of his composition is stCl a 
favorite with modern orchestras. 
In his time were written the 
greater tragedies of Corneille— 
the Cid, Horace, Cinna and Poly- 
eucte (Poly-ute). It is the later 
time of Corneille which belongs 

to the following reign. "During the time of Louis Xm. appeared that remarkable constella- 
tion of saints and saintly men of whom we read in the lives of St. Vincent de Paul and M. 
Oiler, and who renewed the faith of the Church in Franc(;. Even Richelieu consulted the 




bt. VinceuL cie Paul. 
{From an engraving of his time.) 



^m 



FRANCE. 



venerable Monsieur Vincent with respect on Church matters and appointments, and it was in 
his arms that Louis breathed his last." 

Mazarin. — Cardinal Richelieu had designated the Italian Car- 
dinal Mazarin as his successor. With less greatness, but with the 
same general policy, this Minister carried on the traditions of his 
predecessor into the following reign. 

Louis XIV., 1643-1715, began his reign, like his father, 

as a minor. He was not five 
years old at accession. The 
Queen mother, Anne "of Aus- 
tria" (a Spanish Infanta), and 
Mazarin had been left joint 
members in the regency. The 
smouldering opposition to the 
stern will of Richelieu took 
shape in a motion of the Parha- 
ment of Paris, setting aside this 
provision and making Anne of 
Austria the sole regent. The 
effort to win influence in this 
way was dashed by the action of the Queen, who reappointed Maza- 
rin co-regent. He was, however, unpopular as an Italian foreigner, 
and she was unpopular as a Spaniard. 

Causes of Discontent.— The system of taxation was oppressive, and this increased the 
discontent. The English parliament had made itself supreme in England against the king, 
and the Parliament of Paris was infected by its example. The situations were really, how- 
ever, very different, for the Parliament in France was not a representative body. The mem- 
bers owed their place to purchase or appointment. Their duties were simply to register the 
laws. Nor was there in France, as in England, a sentiment opposed to absolute sovereignty, 
as a matter of principle. Therefore, the parliamentary opposition which began in France the 
civil war of the " Fronde " had no lasting results. 

The Wars of the Fronde are so named because the opposition 
was thought to act like the boy playing with a sling (fronde) who 
throws a stone and then runs away. The Parliament began its war 
with some public support arising from the unpopularity of the 
regents and the weight of taxes, but found its cause mainly taken 




Louis XIV. Old medal. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 



277 



up by the members of the nobility, who wished to reassert the old 

freedom of the aristocracy and to break down the system of Eich- 

elieu for selfish reasons. The Queen 

mother and Mazarin were driven from 

Paris. The latter had the wisdom 

to leave France, still continuing to 

direct his party. 

Conde and Turenne.— Conde, first on the 
side of the governmeut, then leader of the aristo- 
cratic revolt, became in this last capacity more un- 
popular than the goverument and took service with 
Spain. Turenne, the leader of the Fronde at first, 
afterward took service for the court. It seemed 
impossible for either party to be serious. Epi- 
grams and jokes were plentiful on all sides. The 
court had actually caused the arrest of Conde, be- 
fore he took service with Spain, by an order signed 
in blank by himself. The troubles of the Fronde 
continued between 1648 and 1653. 

Peace of Westphalia.— Maza- 
rin had already, in the first year of 
these troubles, efiected the close of 
the negotiations of the Peace of Westphalia, by which France ob- 
tained the important possession of Alsace. This acquisition was 
important in itself and also because it gave one portion of the king- 
dom the Rhine as boundary. Brilliant victories of the French over 
the Spaniards, in the last thirteen years of the Thirty Years' War, 
had secured her these advantageous terms. 

The victories of Rocroi, 1643, Freiburg, 1644, Nordlingen, 1645, Lens, 1648, were all won 
by Conde. The war with Spain was not closed by the Peace of Westphalia, but continued 
during the period of the Fronde, when the Spaniards secured some advantages and the service 
of the famous French general, as noted. Turenne was now his opponent and gained Don- 
kirk by the battle of the Dunes. It was turned over to England, whose alliance (time of 
Cromwell) ended the war in favor of the French. 

The treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659, confirmed the conquests 
of Artois and Koussillon made in the time of Richelieu, and gave the 
Spanish Infanta in marriage to Louis XIV. Conde was pardoned, 
and became one of the great generals of the king. 




Musketeer ; 17th Century. 
(Design bg Charlet.) 



278 FRANCE. 

Louis XIV. his own Prime Minister. —Four years before 
this date the young king had shown his mettle by appearing in the 
ParHament in hunting-dress, with a whip in his hand, and ordering 
its members to contine themselves to duties of registration without 
debate. Two years after the Peace of the Pyrenees, at the death of 
Cardinal Mazarin, he assumed absolute control of the state. 

The despotic system developed by two great Ministers was 
now administered by the king himself, on the avowed principle — 
*^I am the state." The system, which had begun by quelling the 
nobles, continued under Louis XIV. by disarming them with royal 
favors and employment at Court. 

Popularity of the Monarchy.— Thus a despotism perfected by ihe support of the pub- 
lic and the middle classes (accorded the monarchy in constantly increasing degree since the 
time of Louis VI., p. 186), ended by making also an instrument and ally of the aristocratic power 
it had overthrown. This is the gieatuess of the time of Louis XIV. Had his absolute rule 
not received the support of public opinion it could not have existed. The development of 
absolute monarchy in France must be regarded as the instrument and expression of a popular 
sentiment demanding a power to quell the nobles and suppress the feudal system. In Den- 
mark, Norway, and Sweden, even, the same popular aspect of abso- 

r — .„ =5<;^ -| lute monarchy was openly conceded. The antagonism of monarch 

/^j^^^^- '"id people in England, beginning in the 17th century and ending in 

the revolution of 1688, had special local causes. It did not exist in 
the 16th century, when Elizabeth was quite independent of her 
parliament, though not of public sentiment. Against public sen- 
timent no government can stand. 

Great Names of the Period.— The influence wielded by 
Louis XIV. was at once a tribute to his system, to his personality, 
and to his patronage of art and of learning. He had not created 
the generation of great men which surrounded him, but he dis- 
cerned their qualities and rewarded their talents. Among dramatic 
authors the period of Corneille continued, that of Racine and 
Moliere. Molifere began. It was the time of Fenelon, Archbishop of Cam- 

brai and author of " Telemaque " ; of Bourdaloue, of Bossuet (Bos- 
sn-a), and of Massillon (Masseyon) in pulpit eloquence ; of Boileau (Bwahlo) in criticism ; and 
of La Fontaine, author of the celebrated Fables. The French language attained that polish 
and facility of expression which has since made it the diplomatic and general language of 
Europe. The names of the statesmen, Colbert (CSlbare) and Lou vols (Louvwah), of the gen- 
erals Turenne and Conde, of Vauban, the military engineer, are world-renowned. The reign 
of Louis XrV. exhibited its splendor and magnificence in the palace and gardens of Ver- 
sailles, on which .35,000 workmen were employed. 

The War of Devolution.— In the Treaty of the Pyrenees 




SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 279 

Louis XIV. had renounced any claims on behalf of his Spanish 
Queen to the Spanish inheritance, but her dowry of 500,000 crowns 
had not been paid. Moreover, Tarenne considered the possession 
of certain fortresses on the frontier of the Spanish Netherlands as 
essential to the military security of France. At the death of 



&:4vP^^:f , 5S./ •* - 





J 



Tiie Falace of Versailles In the time of Louis XIV. 

Philip IV. of Spain, in 1665, claim was therefore laid to the Span- 
ish Netherlands by right of '• devolution," on the ground that 
Charles II., the next (and last) Spanish Hapsburg, was son of a 
second marriage, and that Flemish law gave preference to the 
female heir of the first marriage. This right of devolution had been 
discovered for Louis by the Flemings, who dreaded a reversion of 
their state to the Austrian Hapsburgs, and favored in preference a 
union with France. 

In a single campaign, 1667-1668, tlie generals of Louis conquered 
Belgium and the Franche-Corate. This rapid success alarmed the rest of 
Europe, as leading, unless opposed, to an overpowering French ascendency, 
and an overthrow of the " balance of power." 

A triple alliance was formed between Holland, Sw^eden, and England to 
oppose the French, and this alliance secured the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668, 
by which Franche-Comte was abandoned and French Flanders (the southern 
border of Belgium with important fortresses) was retained by the French. 



280 FRANCE. 

The active part taken by Holland in checking the ambition of Louis 
and in forcing restitution of a conquest (the Franche-Comte) needed to carry 
France to her natural barrier and frontier of the Jura Mountains, drew upon 
the Dutch the hatred of the king. 

The theory which made the monarch the state had this disadvantage— that the 
sentiment of pert^oual honor so lively in the French was carried by Louis into the science of 
politics. A check to France was a personal insult to the monarch. This was the weak spot of 
his system, and the very chivalry and generosity of the king's character exposed France to 
ultimate exhaustion by constant war. 

The Dutch -war was opened to chastise Holland, in 1672. The 
French armies overran the whole of the Spanisli Netherlands, and 
nearly all Holland, to the walls of Amsterdam. In this emergency 
the Dutch overthrew the government of the brothers De Witt, who 
had ruled the Eepublic in the interest of the commercial aristocracy, 
and appointed William of Orange, a descendant of William the 
Silent, their Stadtholder. 

Only one resource of resistance was left — to cut the dykes which 
protect this country from the sea. The conntry was flooded, and 
thus was saved. Holland could afford the sacrifice, great as it was, 
because her power and greatest wealth lay in her marine, then at the 
head of the commerce of the world. When this first step had been 
taken, William of Orange united in coalition against France — Spain 
(now the ally, so long the enemy of the Dutch), Austria, Prussia, 
and the Germanic Empire. France had now to contend with 
almost the whole of Europe, but she emerged from the struggle 
successfully, thanks to the genius of her great generals, Conde and 
Turenne. The latter was killed in this war. 

The Peace of Nimwegen, 1678, added to her provinces the 
Franche-Comte, to her protection the barrier of the Jura, and her 
fleet w^as mistress of the Mediterranean. 

Continued success increased the jealousy of Europe against the French, and it 
increased the self-confidence of Louis XTV. to the pitch of arrogance. Spanish ambassadors 
were forced at all courts to give precedence to his. Pope Innocent X. was curtailed of his 
rights of justice in the very city of Kome on a question of ambassadorial privilege. His 
police were not allowed to have jurisdiction in the district of the French ambassador. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 281 

The rights of the Roman Church were seriously attacked in France by claim of the king to 
the revenues of all vacant bishoprics. The French Huguenots were to be forcibly made over 
into Catholics, and the dragonades (exposure to the violence of the soldiery) forced thousands 
of industrious people to abandon the country. (Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685.) 

Meantime, although the organization of the German Empire was weak, Austria was growing 
strong. The defeat of the Turks before Vienna in 1683, by the Polish king, Sobieski, resulted 
in a series of victories by which the Turks were driven out of Hungary. 

In 1686 was formed tlie " Leag-ue of Augsburg-," between Austria and the 
Princes of the Empire, including Brandenburg (Prussia), Spain for the "Burgundian" terri- 
tories, and Sweden for the Pomeranian countries. In this league the name of William of 
Orange did not appear, but he was well known to be its supporter and instigator. The League 
of Augsburg proposed to protect the integrity of the Germanic Empire. This was threatened 
with encroachments by Louis XIV., through claims on behalf of his brother's wife to inherit- 
ance in the Palatinate, and by claims to other German territories (based on old feudal preten- 
sions of Metz, Toul, and Verdun), going back to the time of Charlemagne. That these 
pretensions were to be pushed with vigor was apparent in the absorption of Strassburg by 
France. This important free town of Alsace, with some minor territories, had not been 
included in the Peace of Westphalia, which affected the Hapsburg possessions of Alsace. 

War of the League of Augsburg. — Louis XIV. declared 
war on the Germanic Empire in 1688, making pretext of a quarrel 
about the appointment of a new Electoral Archbishop of Cologne. 
In this year James II. was expelled from the English throne and 
replaced by William of Orange, who was husband of Mary, one of 
the daughters of the English king. Louis declared for the cause 
of James, to antagonize his great enemy William of Orange. 

The war of the League of Augsburg continued nine years, with 
many bloody battles and immense sacrifices. Spain, Holland, Eng- 
land, Savoy, Austria, and Prussia, were combined against France. 
The English naval victory of La Hogue, 1692, destroyed the French 
fleet and the naval ascendency of France in the Mediterranean, 
where England took her place. 

In the Peace of Ryswick, 1697, France gained nothing, 
made some cessions in Belgium, and in internal forces, in moral 
stamina, had lost terribly. 

Burning of the Palatinate.— In this war occurred the terrible French devastation 
of the German Palatinate, p. 253, when entire towns and villages were destroyed, and the 
country was laid waste wholesale. The motive was, to deprive the enemy of vantage-ground 
against the two fortified towns of Philipsbui'g and Mayence by creating a desert. The country 
was destroyed rather than surrender it to the rival armies. This cruel act was directed by 
the policy of Louvois, but the king could have prevented it. 



282 



FRANCE. 



Map Study . —Jiiliers, Maick, ("leve. and Bers are entered on the map for 1713, p. 254. 
In this disputed t^uccession, the Palatinate gained Berg and Juliers ; Brandenburg acquired 
Marck, Cleve, and Kavensberg (p. 253). For the Valtellina, see section map for N. E. Italy, on 
map for 1550, p. 228. Rochelle, map for 1(348, p. 250. 

Acquisition of Artois, map for 1713, but compare boundarie.-;, pp. 228, 250. Acquisition of 
Roussillon, compare mops for 1550 and 1G4S. Acquisition of Alsace, compare same maps. 

Spanish Netherlands, map for 1648. Ais-la-Chapelle, map for 1713. Nimwegen, same map. 
Franche-Comte, compare colors on maps for 1G48 and 1713. Augsburg, map for 1713. 
Strassburg-, La Hogue, the same. Ryswick, see map for 1(;4S. Palatinate, map for 1713. 



CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Canada colonized after a. u. 1003 

Assassination of Henry IV '" 1610 

RicheHeu, Minister for Louis XIII. after " 1G24 

Siege of Rochelle '• 1627 

France takes part in the Thirty Years' War after " 1635 

Death of Richelieu " 1642 

Accession of Louis XIV " 1643 

Peace of Westphalia gives Alsace to France "1648 

Civil Wars of the Fronde till " 1653 

Peace of the Pyrenees secures Artois and Roussillon to France " 1659 

Death of Cardinal Mazarin— Louis XIV. his own Minister " 1661 

War of Devolution opens " 16(57 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle— French Flanders acquired " 1668 

War with Holland begun " 1672 

Peace of Nimwegen— Franche-Comte acquired " 1678 

French Empire In India after " 1680 

Strassburg- acquired "1681 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes " 1685 

War of the League of Augsburg " 1688 

Burning of the Palatinate ... " 1680 

English naval victory of La Hogue " 1692 

Peace of Ryswick " 1697 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

Who were the English rulers of the 17th century? A/t<. James I.. Charles T., Cromwell. 
Charles II., James 11., William III. 

Why did the accession of this last king in 1688 embroil England with France ? (P. 281.) 

W^hat war began in this year? (P. 281.) 

When did the Great Elector die ? (P. 251.) 

How long before the execution of Charles I. of England was the accession of Louis XIV.? 
(P. 263.) 

How long before the Peace of Westphalia was this accession ? (P. 250.) 

When did the Thirty Years' War begin ? (P. 247.) 

How long after this time did Richelieu become ]Minisler of France ? (P. 282.) 

What did thi>* country gain by the Peace of Westphalia ? (P. 250.) 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 



283 



What gain by the Peace of the Pyrenees ? (P. 277.) 

With what two branches of one family were these treaties respectively made ? 

Sketch briefly the history of Spain from 14G9 to 1700. (Pp. 225-229, 241, 242.) 

Cromwell was master of England from 1049 to 1658. Who was then Minister of France ? 

When was Gustavus Aclolphus killed ? (P. 248.) 

What French Minister had favored his landing in Germany ? (P. 248.) 

When did Portugal recover independence ? (P. 275.) How ? (P. 274.) 

What English party was favored by Richelieu ? What German party? (P. 274.) 

When was Strassbm-g acquired by France ? (P. 282.) 

What caused the war of the League of Augsburg ? (P. 281.) 

W^hat Spanish king died in 1700? (P. 241.) 

What will had he made ? (P. 254, and Genealogy, p, 283.) 

What powers opposed this will ? (P. 255.) Why ? 

What contributed to the power of Austria in the last half of the 17th century ? (P. 251.) 

What were the relations of Germany to France after the Peace of Westphalia ? (P. 251.) 

What gains to Brandenburg by this Peace ? (P. 253.) 

What part did Prussia take in the War of the Spanish Succession? (P. 254.) 

Why? (P. 254.) 

Relate the course of this war. (P. 255.) The conditions of the Peace of Utrecht. (P. 256.) 

What gain for England ? (Pp. 260, 284.) 

When had the .Spani.<h Hip.sburg line begun ? (P. 257.) Name its possessions in 1556. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

FRENCH KINGS OF THE 18th CENTURY. 

Louis XIV A. D. (1643)-1715 

Louis XV. , <Treat-grandson of the Ibreoroing " 1715-1774 

Louis XVI., grandson of tlie foregoing " 1774-1793 

GENEAXOGY OF THE SP.\NISH AND FIJENCH BOURBONS. 

Philip IV. of Spain. 

Maria Theresa=Loui8 XIV. of France. Charles II. 

I 1 1700. 

Louis the Dauphin =Maria .\nna of Bavaria. 



Duke of Burgundy. Philip V. of Spain. 

! ' Founder of the Spanish 
Louis XV. Bourbons. 

t 1774. 

Louis the Dauphin. 
1 1765. 

I 



Louis XVI. Louis XVIII. Charles X. 

1 1793. 1 1824. Deposed 1830. 



Louis XVII. 
1 1705. 



284 FRANCE. 

War of the Spanish Succession. — The Peace of Ryswick 
lasted only three years. The Spanish Succession War (p. 254), which 
opened in 1700, went almost uniformly against the French, whose 
greatest generals, Turenne, Conde, and Luxemburg, were dead. 
Marlborough, for the English, and Prince Eugene, for the Aus- 
trians, either separately or together won victory after victory — 
Blenheim 1704, Kamillies and Turin 1706, Oudenarde 1708, Mal- 
plaquet 1709. 

Peace of Utrecht, 1713. — In the time of disaster Louis XIV. 
showed the virtues of his defects, as he had before shown the defects 
of his virtues. His fortitude, patience, and dignity, won universal 
admiration. A revolution of English parties displaced Marlborough, 
and the death of the Austrian Hapsburg Emperor made the Aus- 
trian Hapsburg claimant Emperor as w^ell, and so turned Europe 
against a reunion of the States of Charles V. Thus this war, which 
threatened the downfall of France, gave her Bourbon dynasty a seat 
on the throne of Spain (where it still continues) and the Spanish 
American possessions. France resigned to England, besides Gib- 
raltar, Hudson's Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia, 
and abandoned the cause of the Stuarts, the heirs of James II. of 
England. 

Map Study. — Blenheim, in Central Germany, map for 1713, p. 254. Same map, or corner 
section, for Turin and battlefields of the Netherlands— Ramillies, Oudenarde, Malplaquet. For 
Peace of Utrecht see Bourbon color in Spain ; for Austrian acquisitions and that of 
Savoy see map explanation, p. ii56, and map for 1713. 

Two years after the Peace of Utrecht Louis XIV. died. Above 
all the political changes and 'Hiistorical events'' of his reign must 
be placed that expansion of the French spirit and cultivation over 
Europe which has ever since continued. This it Avas which gave his 
triumphs their strength and which deprived his reverses of im- 
portance. 

Character of Louis XIV. — In person this monarch was dignified and commanding. In 
intercourse he was affable and careful of the feelings of his friends. His mind was quick. 
His conversation had that combination of wit and sagacity peculiar to the French. His pri- 
vate life was not blameless in youth, but he had the grace to acknowledge and atone for his 




EIGHTEENTH (" E N T U R Y. 285 

sins in later years. On his deathbed greatness of son! did not desert him. To the friends 
around him he said : " Why do you weep, did you thinlc me immortal ? I did not think it was 
so easy to die." 

Louis XV., 1715-1774, was the great-grandson of his prede- 
cessor and under five years of age at accession. The age and associa- 
tions were not those of the period of Louis XIV., 
who had outlived the great artists and the great 
men of letters of the 17th century. The regency 
was conducted by the nephew of Louis XIV., 
the Duke of Orleans, a man of ability, but of 
dissipated character. His Prime Minister, 
the Abbe Dubois, was also a vicious person. 
Under the influence of such guardians the king 
grew up to rival them in vice, but not in talent. Louis xv. 

The Eegent retired in 1733, when Louis XV. ^Engraved gem.) 

was declared of age, and died soon after. 

Cardinal Fleury was the king's Prime Minister for many years 
(1726-1743). His policy of economy and inactivity corresponded 
to the changed position of France, whose vigorous action of the 
century before was no longer congenial to a pleasure-loving court 
and an aristocracy weakened by corruption. During his adminis- 
tration, however, took place the War of the Polish Succession. 

The Polish Succession.— Louis XV. had married the daughter of Stanislaus Lec- 
zinslii (king of Poland, in the early part of the century, till expelled by Charles XII. of 
Sweden). Stanislaus was again elected at the death of the Saxon king of Poland in 1733. The 
House of Austria, in league with Russia, favored the pretensions of the next Saxon Elector 
(why ? p. 256) and he was elected by another Polish party. Hence the War of the Polish Suc- 
cession, 1733-1738. France, in alliance with Spain and " Sardinia " (Savoy), supported the claim 
of the king's fatlier-in-law, but without much vigor. 

The Treaty of Vienna, 1738, secured the crown of Poland 
to Augustus III. of Saxony, and indemnified Stanislaus Leczinski 
by the Duchy of Lorraine, with reversion after his death to 
France; and thus this important province was united with the 
monarchy. (Compare maps for 1648, 1713 and 1748, pp. 250, 
254, 256.) 



286 



F R A N C E 



MAP EXPLANATION. 

Tuscany.— The Duke of Lorraine, Franci;^, husband of the Austrian Qneen Maria Theresa, 
was indemnified with Tuscany, where the line of the Medici became extinct in 1737. Tuscany 
became an Austrian Appanage (connected witb Austria, but ruled by a branch line). See the 

Austrian color on map for 1748. (The House of Austria 
had obtained Belgium, Milan, Naples and Sardinia in the 
Spanish Succession War. See map for 1713, witb Haps- 
burg color and Spanish hues removed in these territories. 
It had exchanged Sardinia for Sicily in 1720. So that it 
ruled before the Peace of Vienna in 1738, Belgium, Milan, 
Naples and Sicily.) The kingdom of Naples and Sicily was 
transferred by this peace to a branch line of the Spanish 
Bourbons. See Bom-bon color on map for 1748. (Explan- 
ation repeated from p. 25G.) 

Austrian Succession.— France also took part in 
the War of the Austrian Succession (pp. 256, 257), 1740-1748, 
without glory and without any results except a large addi- 
tion to an already enormous debt, the legacy of Louis XIV. 

Tlie Seven Years' War, 1756-1763, (p. 256.) cost 
France the loss of Canada and of the "Western Amer- 
ican territories to England. England gained also the 
French East Indian possessions and developed 
from them the British Empire in India. (Peace of Paris, 
p. 258.) 

Corsica was ceded in 1768 by Genoa to the French. 

It bad long been a Genoese possession, when a rebellion 

in 1755 wbich could not be suppressed caused finally the 

cession of tbe Island to a stronger power. Only a few 

months later, in 1769, Napoleon Bonaparte was born 

in Corsica, at Ajaccio. His family bad emigrated at an 

_ , TT w ^ . /, earlier date from Florence. 

French Uniform, l^th Cenuuy. 

(Design by C/iarlet.) 

After the death of Fleury (in 1743) 
Louis XV. bad condncted the government under the control of 
female favorites. The monarchy forfeited the esteem of the people, 
and while it continued to exhaust the resources of the country in 
foreign war, it did not offer even the barren stimulus of glory to 
the loyalty of the nation. A wise financial administration and a 
progressive domestic policy were absolutely essential to the national 
stability, and these were not even attempted by the king — the motto 
of whose favorite was: ^^ After us the Deluge." 

Louis XVI., 1774-1793, was the grandson of the last king, 
and twenty years old when crowned. His character was amiable and 




EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 




Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. 
i,Meclal of the time.) 



upright, without decision, without foresight, and without experience. 
His Queen, Marie Antoinette, was the daughter of the Austrian 
Enipress Maria Theresa. In 
spite of many engaging quali- 
ties, her extravagance and levity 
made the court unpopular with 
the common people, who were 
beginning to contrast their con- 
dition of misery with the opu- 
lence of the aristocracy. 

The Tax-farmers.— Most 
opulent of all were the bankers 
who farmed the taxes. The 
old Roman Republican system 
of raising taxes by contract had 
been followed in France with 
the same results of oppression 

and peculation. The burden of these taxes fell on the poor. The priv- 
ileged classes held the bulk of property, and they were exempt from 
taxation. This unjust distribution of burdens, combined with financial 
mismanagement and heavy indebtedness, was the main cause of the 
French Revolution. Public attention was, however, absorbed for the 
moment by the enthusiasm for the cause of the American colonies. 

The French in America before the Seven Years' War.— After the opening of 
the 17th century, the French had been foremost in the New World and England next. Spain 
had relaxed her energies in this direction. While the Puritans were colonizing Massachusetts, 
after 16^0, the French had already fixed themselves on the St. Lawrence. Fi-ench Jesuit mission- 
aries began the conversion of the Indians to Christianity. In two points the French far sur- 
passed the English ; in their treatment of the natives, in the extent of their territory. Prom 
the St. Lawrence they pushed their exploring parties to Albany. Moving along the chain of 
Great Lakes to Lake Superior, they descended the Mississippi to New Orleans. Then they 
proceeded to open up the basin of the Ohio and the country between the crest of the Alle- 
ghanies and the Mississippi. 

This rapid advance of the French in the West alarmed the settlers in the English 
colonies. The jealousy of England was excited. The Seven Years' War, 1756-1763, was begun 
(in America) to wipe out the French hold of the West and of Canada. Without warning, at 
the opening of the war, immense numbers of French merchantmen were seized. The Ministers 
of Louis XV. could not cone with the rapid, darine, and broad combinations of the English 



^88 FRANCE. 

Minister, Pitt. And yet the Eugli.sh overreached themselves. The French abandoned their 
American possessions at the close of the Seven Tears' War ; but the French Minister, Choi- 
seuil, prophesied that En^^land would lose her colonies in consequence. Both the French and 
Spaniards had much just reason for complaint, throughout the 18th century, against the colo- 
nial policy of the English. English mercantile jealousy of the two Bourbon dynasties had been 
the mainspring of her participation in the wars of the Continent. Since the loss of the Great 
West and of the French Canadian territories, the French Ministries had been waiting their turn. 
Participation of France in the American "War of Independence.— This now 
offered itself in the outbreak of the American Revolution, ITib and ITTO. The participation 
of the French in this war after 1778, was due to the influence of Benjamin Franklin at the 
French Court. The French army, sent under Rochambeau in 1780, contributed materially to 
the success of the American cause. The decisive turning-point was the surrender of Corn- 
wallis in 1781, and American Independence was secured by the Treaty of Versailles in 1783. 

An enthusiasm for Republican liberty had been awakened by the renewed studies 
of classic antiquity toward the close of the 18th century, and was increased by the success 
of the American colonies. Much philosophical speculation on the rights of man had led to an 
exaggerated estimate of human liberties as opposed to human duties and responsibilities. 
Skeiiticism and infidelity had become very general through tlie influence of talented but ill- 
balanced authors. 

The French Revolution thus presents a mixture of causes and a mixture in results. 
It abolished class privilege and class distinction in legislation, which was a good thing to do. 
It attempted to establish a civil constitution for the Church, which was absurd. It attacked a 
monarchy which had neglected the people, but in the person of a monarch who wished them 
well. In its zeal for reform it made the mistake of conceiving that legislation is a universal 
remedy for ills of the State. 

The Revolution presents three stag-es.— A period of changes— some absolutely 
necessary to the farther existence of France— some, destructive of religion and therefore of 
morality. 2d. A period of attack on the rights of property, of hatred for the best and purest 
characters in France, of wild legislation, of rampant infidelity and insane bloodshed. 3d. A 
period of reaction in favor of religion, of discipline and order, ending in the military monarchy 
of Napoleon Bonaparte as the only feasible government under the circumstances. 

History of Europe during- and after the Revolution.— From the time of the 
French Revolution the political history of Western Europe involves constant reference to all 
its nations. A brief account of the main events is best presented in the order of time, without 
attempt to separate the history of different countries. 



IMPORTANT TERRITORIES ACQUIRED BY FRANCE AFTER Vm. 

(P. 268.) Marche and Bourbonnais a. d. 1531 

(P. 265.) Bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun " 1552 

(P.277.) Alsace " 1648 

(P. 277.) Artois and Roussillon " 1659 

(P. 279.) French Flanders " 1668 

(P. 280.) Franche-Comte " 1678 

(P. 281.) Strassburg " 1681 

(P. 285.) Lorraine, 1738 and death of Stanislaus Leczinski " 1766 

(P. 286.) Corsica '' 1768 



E I G H T E E N 1 H CENTURY 



289 



CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Death of Charles II. of Spain. Cause of the Spanish Succession War (p. 260) 

Peace of Utrecht ii:ives Spain and Spanish America to the Bourbons 

Accession of Louis XV 

Reversion of Lorraine. (Spanish Bourbon Naples and Sicily. Austrian Tuscany.). . 
French participation in the War of the Austrian Succession (p. 256), from 1740.-.. . 
Seven Years' War, from 1756 to Peace of Paris (and Hubertsburg). | 

France loses her American and East Indian possessions to England, y'" 

Death of Stanislaus Lecziusky gives Lorraine formally to France 

Corsica acquired from Genoa 

Accession of Louis XYI 

French participation in the W^ar of the American Eevolution, after 

Peace of Versailles 

French Revolution begins 

Execution of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 

Napoleon Bonaparte " First Consul " 



D. 1700 
1713 
1715 
1738 
1748 

1763 

1766 
1768 
1774 

1778 
1783 
17S9 
1793 
1799 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

What conditions of the Peace of Utrecht are not mentioned at p. 284 ? (See p. 256.) 

(Do not confuse these conditions with the changes of 1720 and 1738 mentioned in the same 
connection.) 

What relation was the first Spanish Bourbon to the last Spanish Hapsburg ? (Genealogy, 
p. 283.) 

When did the Spanish Bourbons acquire Naples and Sicily ? (Pp. 256, 286.) From whom ? 

How long had Austria held these possessions ? As result of what war ? 

What did Austria gain in return ? (Pp. 256, 286.) In the person of what Prince ? 

What territory had he ruled ? What became of this territory ? 

Who were the English sovereigns of the 18th century ? (.P. 262.) 



FRENCH SOVEREIGNS FROM 1500 TO 1800. 

Louis XII A. D. (1498)-1515 

Francis I " 1515-1547 

Henry II ^ 1547.1559 

Francis II '^ 1559-1560 

Charles IX » 1560-1574 

Henrylll .. 1574-1589 

Henry IV ^' 1.589-1610 

Louis Xni - 1610-1643 

Louis XIV u 164.3-1715 

LouisXV u i7i5_i774 

Louis XVI <■<■ 1774-1793 



THE 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 



AND LATER MODERN HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



THE BOURBON LINE VTITU THE ORLEANS BRANCH. 



Homy IV 
tlGlO. 

I 



Louis XIII. 
tl643. 

I 



Gaston of Orleaus 



Hem-ietta Maria. 

Married Charles I. 

of England. 



Louis XIV. 

tlT15. 

I 

Louis, Dauphin. 

+1711. 



Louis, Duke of Burgundy. 
+1712. 

Louis XV. 

+1774. 

I 

Louis, Dauphin. 

+176.5. 



Philip V. of Spain. 



Louis XVI. 

+1793. 

(Louis XVIL) 

Page 299. 

+1795. 



Louis XVIII. 
+1824. 



Charles X. 
Deposed 1830. 

+1836. 

Duke of Berry. , 

+1820. ] 

Henry V.," Duke of Bordeaux. 

Comte de Chambord. 

+1883. 



Philip, Duke of Orleans. 

+1701. 

I 

Philip, Dnke of Orleans. 

The " Regent," +1723. 

Louis. 

+1752. 

I 

Louis Philippe, 

+1785. 

Louis Philippe-Joseph. 
" Egalite," +1793. 

Louis Philippe. 

French king, 1830-1848. 

+1850. 

Ferdinand, Duke of Orleans. 

+1842. 

( The Comte de Paris. 
I The Duke de Chartres. 



In 1786 the deficit in the French finances and the impossibihty 
of meeting it without extraordinary measures, caused the king to 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 291 

summon a Convention of "Notables*' to devise remedies. This 
assembly did not accomplish anything. 

Recourse was next had to a Convention of the Estates. Only 
the privileged orders of clergy and nobles had been represented in 
the meeting of Notables. In the new convention the Third Estate 
of people in general, witliont any privilege of rank, was also 
summoned. 

On the 5th of May, 1789, the king convened the Estates at 
Versailles. The Third Estate refused to be convened separately. It 
demanded the holding of the Estates in one body to vote by numbers. 
The Third Estate equaled in number the sum of the two other 
orders, and this demand stated the grievance of the French people 
in general, as being opposed to privilege of one class over another. 

On the 27th of June, 1789, the clergy and nobility agreed to 
sit with the Third Estate, and the National Assembly began to 
act. It aboHshed all class legislation and all distinctions of rank, 
but it also appropriated all Church property to the service of the 
nation. A uniform system of taxation was decreed, and the As- 
sembly dissolved. A self-denying ordinance was passed, by which 
its members resolved not to serve in the Legislative Assembly which 
was to follow. 

This Assembly met in October, 1791. Its most important 
act was a declaration of war, in 1792, against the German Emperor, 
Francis 11. of Austria. Since 1713 the Spanish Netherlands had 
belonged to Austria. The principles of the French Revolution 
were spreading all over Europe, and the Austrian ruler, dreading 
the contamination of Belgium, posted an army on the Belgian 
frontier. This was considered a menace by the French, who were 
also much excited by efforts of refugee nobles to rouse Europe 
against them. 

The declaration (of Pillnitz) by Prussia and Austria that 
they would take measures to emancipate Louis XVI. from confine- 
ment was the immediate cause of war. German forces, collected by 
tlie Austrian sovereign as Emperor of Germany, were directed 



292 THE REIGN OF TERROR. 

against France, but the campaign of 1792 was ineffective except in 
kindling French patriotism. (Check of the Germans at Valmy, 
and subsequent retreat. Victory of the French at Jemmappes.) 

Meantime the halting attitude of the king and his repugnance 
to the war led to a coalition of the moderates with the extremists 
of the Republican party, and monarchy was abolished by a National 
Convention on the 21st of September, 1792. 

The king was then tried for conspiring against the national 
liberty, sentenced to death, and executed, January 21, 1793. His 
queen, Marie Antoinette, was soon afterward put to death. All 
members of the aristocratic or royalist party who could be seized 
shared a like fate. The Catliolic priests, as defenders of law and 
order, were subjected to imprisonment and condemned to death 
wholesale. For opposing the frenzy of the extremists (the "Jaco- 
bins "), the moderates (" Girondists "\ who had themselves set the 
ball rolling, found themselves the victims of the guillotine, and a 
" Reign of Terror" began which has left its stamp on the name of 
Robespierre (Rob-es-peair). The Catholic worship was proscribed 
under pain of death. 

Divisions among the leaders of the Reign of Terror termi- 
nated in a reaction. July 28, 1791, Robespierre and the leaders 
of the extremist party were executed. This ended the Reign of 
Terror. 

In 1795 the National Convention completed a Constitution for 
France and passed over the government to a legislative body of two 
Councils. The executive power was held by Five Directors. 

Meantime the execution of Louis XVI. had caused a coalition 
in 1793, headed by England, of all European powers (except Den- 
mark, Sweden, Turkey, and the Swiss) against France. But the 
French had waged war so vigorously that they held already in 1794 
all territory on the left Rhine bank, including Belgium. (The 
Dutch Repubhc allied itself with France.) 

Prussia, in 1794, withdrew from the war by the Peace of 
Basle, stipulating for a line of demarcation beyond which the war 



1 




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T/ir French Empire Sfd^ChtelpftS' InghtYeULow 

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THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 293 

was not to be carried in Xortli Germany. Thus the Emperor was 
left to wage war alone, with assistance of England. The French 
made aggressive campaigns on South Germany and Italy at the 
same time. 

THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 

Map Study.— See "Europe in 1810 " and compare in detail with " Europe in 1748," p. 256. 
Notice the section map for North Italy. 

Italy became a theatre of conflict, because Austria ruled Milan 
and Tuscany. In Germany the French campaign was a failure, 
but this reverse was more than balanced by 
the brilliant successes of Napoleon Bona- 
parte against the Austrians in Italy. 

By the Peace of Campo Formio, 1797, 
Austria formally relinquished the Netherland 
possessions to France and recognized an Itahan 
Republic erected out of the Austrian posses- 
sions in Italy. Bonaparte. 

In 1798 and 1799 took place the Egyp- ^^^ ^''"''''^•^ 

tian expedition under Bonaparte. Its idea was to clear the 
way for a French ascendency in the East and the overthrow of 
the British Empire in India. The destruction of the French fleet 
by the English (Lord Nelson) in the Bay of Aboukir crippled these 
plans. Bonaparte conquered Egypt, but could not hold Syria 
against the Turks and English, and he returned to France. (Egypt 
was abandoned by the army left behind in 1801.) 

In 1799 the violent transformation by the Directory of the 
Papal States into a "Roman Republic," with other aggressive acts, 
again led to war. (England, Russia, Turkey and Austria against 
France.) The French were driven out of Italy by the Russians 
under Suwarrow (Soovarov). But on the return of Bonaparte 
from Egypt he overthrew the Directory and was made First 
Consul, ] 790, ?'. c, elective head of the State. 

The decisive battle of Marengo was gained by Bonaparte in 




294 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Italy, June 14th, 1800. The French General Moreau gained in 
Germany, December 3d of the same year, the victory of Hohenlin- 

den. Peace was made with Austria 
at Luneville, 1801 ; with the other 
Powers at Amiens, 1803. All terri- 
tories on the left Rhine bank were 
ceded to France. 

Bonaparte restored the Catholic 
worship, encouraged the return of the 
Royalists to France, and in all de- 
partments of government carried out 
most important reforms. 

In 1803 England again declared 
war through jealousy of Bonaparte. 
Russia, Austria, and Sweden com- 
bined with her. Prussia remained 
neutral. The victory of Austerlitz, 
won by Bonaparte December 2d, 1805, 
ended the war. At the moment of 
victory Prussia was about to begin 
hostilities because Bonaparte had not 
stopped to go round Anspach and 
Baireuth (see p. 167), instead of 
marching through them. The am- 
bassador who was deputed to declare 
war changed his key after Austerlitz, but his original commission 
was guessed by Napoleon, and Prussia lost favor. 

By the Treaty of Pressburg Bonaparte was acknowledged by 
Austria as Emperor of France (he had been crowned in 1804) and 
King of Ital}^ Venice had been surrendered to Austria as com- 
pensation for Belgium. But Venice and Dalmatia were both taken 
from Austria now and made French territory, and the Tyrol was 
given to Bavaria. Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden were enlarged. 
The two former were made kingdoms. The kingdom of Naples 




Coloucl of Cuirassiers. 
{Times of Bonaparte.) 



THE TIMES OP BONAPARTE 



295 




was given to Napoleon's brother Joseph. Holland was given as 
a kingdom to his brother Louis (father of Napoleon III.). 

In 1806 a large 
part of Western Ger- 
many was consolidated 
into a " Rhenish Con- 
federacy," with Na- 
poleon as Protector. 
Francis II. of Austria 
renounced the title of 
Emperor of Christen- 
dom, held by the Ger- 
man sovereigns since 
Charlemagne, and as- 
sumed the title of Em- 
peror of Austria. 

Prussia could 
not brook the dom- 
inance of Bonaparte in Germany, and the harsh words which her 
own duplicity had provoked. She declared w^ar in 1806. The 
double victory of Jena (Yanah) and Auerstadt in this same 
year led to the triumphal entry of the French into Berlin. The 
Russians, 90,000 strong, came to the assistance of Prussia. Bona- 
parte defeated them at Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit then 
stripped Prussia of one-half her territory, 1807, and made an alliance 
between France and Russia. The French Empire now reached, 
through Holland over Hanover, to the border of Denmark. 

From the confiscated Prussian territories on the left bank 
of the Elbe, with portions of Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel, Bona- 
parte made the new kingdom of " Westphalia " for his younger 
brother, Jerome. 

To cripple the mercantile resources of England, which 
(having lost Hanover) refused to abandon its hostility to the Em- 
peror, he declared a blockade of Great Britain, that is, prohibited all 



Church of the Madeleine, Paris Bailt under Bonaparte. 



296 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

commerce with her on the part of the European States, and ordered 
the confiscation of all British property and arrest of all British sub- 
jects on the Continent. Portugal refused to confiscate British 
property, and was occupied by a French army in 1807. (The 
Koyal family took refuge in Brazil, and one of its branches has 
since continued there.) 

Dissension between parties in Spain called in here also the 
intervention of Bonaparte, who procured the abdication of the 
incapable monarch, and gave the kingdom to his brother 
Joseph ; his cavalry general, Murat, taking Naples. Many use- 
ful reforms were proposed for Spain, but its national spirit rebelled 
against them. English armies were poured in to assist the Spanish 
revolt, and this war, in the years from 1808 to 1813, when the 
French were driven out of Spain, caused the final ruin of Bona- 
parte. (The Spanish South American Colonies threw off their 
allegiance and established independent governments during the time 
of the war with France.) 

Pope Pius VII. had refused his countenance to the extreme 
measures against the English, and he was made prisoner in conse- 
quence. Although Bonaparte had restored the Catholic worship, 
suppressed in the Reign of Terror, his supreme power over all 
Europe made him lose sight of the force of pubhc sentiment, and 
his treatment of the Pope was a second step on the downward path. 
His first mistake had been the conquest of Spain. For the time 
being he was still successful. 

Austria again declared war in 1809, and was defeated in 
the same year at Wagram. Carniola, Carinthia, part of Croatia, 
were ceded to the French by the Peace of Schoenbrunn (Sliern- 
hroon), and Napoleon, divorced from his first wife, Josephine, 
married the Austrian Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of 
Francis II., in 1810. 

Russia resented the incorporation of Hamburg, Bremen, 
and Liibeck with France, as prejudicial to her interests in the 
Baltic, and relaxed the restrictions on British commerce. Napoleon, 




J5UKOPE IK 1816. Cmi^ess of Viemra 




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DentniirA (rrven. 



THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 297 

foreseeing further defection of this ally from his cause, invaded 
Russia with 700,000 men, 1812, and reached Moscow. By the 
burning of Moscow, set in flames by the inhabitants, October, 
1812, his army was compelled to retreat in the dead of the Russian 
winter. Not more than 30,000 men returned. 

The failure of the Russian campaign caused a general 
rising of Europe against ]S"apoleon, 1813. He was defeated at 
Leipsic, ''the battle of the nations." The allies entered Paris 
in 1814. The emperor w^as forced to abdicate, and was given pos- 
session of the Isle of Elba. 

Napoleon re-entered France, while the ambassadors of all 
Europe w^ere deliberating at Vienna, overthrew the new Bourbon 
government of Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., and staked his 
all on the battle of Waterloo, 1815. Defeated by Lord Wel- 
lington, the hero of the English campaigns in Spain, Bonaparte was 
exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821. 

WESTERN EUROPE, AFTER 1815. 

Map Study.— For ten-itories mentioned under Congress of Vienna, see '• Europe in 1816." 
This map should be compared in detail with Europe in 1810 and in 1748. For changes of the 
Franco- Austrian war of 1859, of the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, of the Franco- 
Prussian war of 1870, '71, compare '' Europe in 1816 " with maps at pp. 298, 300. 

The Congress already assembled at Vienna continued its 
session after Waterloo, and arranged the map of Europe about as it 
stood till 1859. France was confined to its old boundaries, and the 
Bourbons were again restored. Prussia obtained the West Rhine 
country, Westphalia, and part of Saxony. Holland nnd Bel- 
gium were united in one kingdom (divided since 1830). In com- 
pensation for Belgium, Austria regained the Venetian terri- 
tory, once given her by Bonapptrte. The Tyrol and Milan were 
returned to Austria. Tuscany was restored to its Austrian 
branch line. The Spanish Bourbons recovered Naples and Sicily. 
The Bourbon dynasty was restored in Spain. 
The general effect of Bonaparte's career and of the French 



298 WESTERN EUROPE, AFTER 1815. 

Eevolution was, territorially speaking, to recompose Germany. 
The two hundred and fifty States of the Peace of Westphaha were 
reduced to thirty-nine, and these were correspondingly enlarged. 

In advancing legal equality the French Revolution had a 
marked and beneficial influence over Europe; but it substituted an 
uncertain and changeable series of governments at home for the old 
hereditary principle, and France has never since been able to con- 
stitute a stable government. 

The son of Louis XVI. had died in prison, 1795. Thus the 
brother of Louis XYI. received the title of Louis XVIIL at the 
Restoration of the Bourbons (Genealogy, p. 290). Louis XVIIL 
died in 18^4. His brother, Charles X., was expelled by revolution 
in 1830, and was succeeded by Louis Philippe of Orleans. This 
line of Orleans descended from the brother of Louis XIV., Regent 
for Louis XV. 

The Revolution of 1848 drove this king from the throne. 
France became a Republic before the end of the year, under the 
presidency of Napoleon, son of Louis, Bonaparte's brother. 

The Empire was substituted for this Republic in 1852, the 
President of the Republic becoming Emperor Napoleon III. 

In 1854 began the Crimean War. France and England allied 
to protect Turkey from Russian invasion. The war accomplished 
its purpose, and for the time crippled the power of Russia by the 
siege and capture of Sebastopol in the Crimea. 

In 1859 Napoleon III. assisted the aspirations of Italy to expel 
its Austrian rulers, by espousing the cause of the House of Savoy, 
under Victor Emmanuel, King of "Sardinia" (p. 256). By the 
battles of Magenta and Solferino, Austria was forced, in the Peace 
of Villafranca, to give up to him Milan. The incorporation of 
the other Italian States, excepting Venetia and the Papal terri- 
tory, with the new Italian kingdom, followed in 1860. To France 
were ceded Nice and Savoy. 

In 1866 the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, existing since 
the great increase of the former power in 1815, resulted in w^ar for 



EUR OPt: 1^1866 




ATTE^IP 



rwedeit- 




WESTERN EUROPE, AFTER 15 00. 299 

the supremacy in Germany. This bad been mainly exercised by 
Austria since 1815. The pretext of the war was a quarrel about 
the government of the Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein. After 
the victory of Koeniggraetz (Kerniggrates) in Bohemia, Prussian 
armies were about to march on Vienna, when Napoleon III. inter- 
vened, compelling Prussia to accept tlie line of the Main as bound- 
ary of her new ascendency. All North Germany was formed into 
a " Bund," headed by Prussia, which retained Sleswick-Holstein 
and confiscated Hanover, Nassau, Frankfort, and Hesse- 
Cassel for assistance rendered Austria, thus uniting East and West 
Prussia into a compact State. In this war Italy had been the ally of 
Prussia, and was given in compensation the territory of Venetia. 

Franco-Prussian war of 1870, "71. — Following the Resto- 
ration of the Bourbons in Spain, after 1815, they reigned till the de- 
thronement of Queen Isabella II. in 1808. Amadeus, second son of 
Victor Emmanuel, the Italian king, then accepted the Spanish mon- 
archy, but abdicated in 1870. It was novv' proposed that a member 
of the Prussian House of HohenzoUern should be King of Spain. 
France resented this effort to establish Prussian influence beyond 
the Pyrenees. Prince Bismarck, the Prussian Minister, resented the 
restriction on Prussian ambition set in 1866. Hence the Franco- 
Prussian war of 1870 and 1871. France was overrun by the Ger- 
man armies. Paris was besieged and taken. Part of Lorraine, 
acquired after 1738 ; Strasburg, acquired in 1681 ; Alsace, ac- 
quired in 1648 ; and Metz, acquired in 1552, were ceded to Ger- 
many with the bitterest feelings. Under the sentiment of patriotism 
roused by foreign war, Bismarck constituted the New Germanic 
Empire, headed by Prussia, in which the kingdoms of Saxony and 
Bavaria, the Saxon Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Baden, kingdom of 
Wiirtemberg, etc., resigned their diplomatic and military indepen- 
dence, although still retaining their independent courts. 

The unification of Germany has not answered the expecta- 
tions which produced it. Under the direction of Bismarck, Ger- 
many has shown an overbearing and persecuting spirit. Her mate- 



300 



WESTERN EUROPE. AFTER 1815. 



rial prosperity is weighted by oppressive taxation for the support of 

the army, which the wrenching of provinces from France has forced 

lier to maintain in constant readiness for war. 

After the unification of Italy, under Victor Emmanuel, 

in 18G0, the Papal territory had been protected by a French army. 

This was withdrawn for employment at home against the Ger- 
mans in 1870. Hence, in 1871, the over- 
throw of the Papal temporal power in 
the States of the Church, which were 
incorporated in the new Italian kingdom. 
Since this event, the dignity of the Pope 
has been exposed to the most unworthy 
insults. 

The French Republic. — Napoleon 
III. had been made prisoner with an en- 
tire French army at Sedan, 1870 (dying 
in England in 1873). Ilis overthrow 
was the signal for the establishment of a 
French Republic, and this had to con- 
tend with a revolt of the Parisian Social- 
ists before Paris could be entered after 
Among^ the Catholic martvrs of the Paris 

" Commune " was Archbishop Darboy. 

The Republic has, since this time, disgraced itself by a religious 

persecution under the banner of pretended liberalism. 





Archbishop Darboy. 



the treaty of peace. 



MAP EXPLANATION FOR " EUROPE IN 1816." 

The Prussian g'ains of 1815 in Western Germany were composed mainly of the Arch- 
bishopric of Treves, Juliers and Berg, the Archbishopric of Cologne, and other parts of ihe 
kingdom of Westphalia formed by Bonaparte. Besides North Saxony, Prussia obtained 
Swedish Pomerania. Prussia lost part of the former gains by the second and third divisions 
of Poland. (See duchy of Warsaw, and Ivingdom of Poland, after 1815, under Russian history.) 

Bavaria obtained the Rhine Palatinate, Anspach, and Baireuth (from Prussia), and 
retained the other gains under Bonaparte, excepting the Tyrol. 

WUrtemberg- and Baden retained the dimensions reached under Bonaparte. 

Hanover obtained, in 1815, East Friesland, the territory between Holland and Olden- 
burg. 



EUROPE 



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SUMMARY. 301. 



SUMMARY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, AND OF SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 
IN Vl'EST CONTINENTAL EUROPE. 

Meeting of the Notables a. d. 1T86 

National Assembly '' 1789 

Legislative Assembly '' 1791 

War declared on Austria and Prussi:i . National Convention " 1792 

Execution of Louis XVI " 1793 

Death of Kobespierre ends the Reign of Terror " 1794 

French Directory '' 1795 

Bonaparte's victories in Italy, over Austria, of Lodi and Arcole " 1796 

Peace of Campo Formio " 1797 

Egyptian Expedition " 1798 

Bonaparte " First Consul" " 1799 

Marengo " 1800 

Peace of Luneville '• 1801 

Peace of Amiens " 1892 

England again declares war '• 1803 

Bonaparte crowned Emperor " 1804 

Austerlitz. Treaty of Pressburg " 1805 

Jena and Auerstiidt " 1806 

Peace of Tilsit " 1807 

Spain occupied by the French " 1808 

Wagram. Peace of Schoenbrunn •' 1809 

Bonaparte marries an Austrian Princess, Maria Louisa " .1810 

His son, " the King of Rome," 1 1832, born " 1811 

Retreat from Moscow " 1812 

Battle of Leipsic " 1813 

Bonaparte in Elba " 1814 

Waterloo and Congress of Vienna " 1815 

Death of Bonaparte " 1821 

Death of Louis XVIII '' 1824 

Charles X. deposed " 1830 

Louis Philippe abdicated '• i848 

Napoleon III. Emperor •' i852 

Crimean War " 1354 

" 1855 

" 1856 

Franco-Austrian War " 1359 

Italy consolidated under the House of Savoy " igeo 

War between Prussia and Austria " 1866 

War between France and Prussia - 1870 

" 1871 



302 



ROMAN PONTIFFS. 



LIST OF THE POPES SINCE 1500, 



Alexander VI A. 


D. 1503t 


Pius III ... ' 


' 1503t 


Julius II ' 


' 1513t 


LeoX ' 


' 15-21t 


Adrian VI ' 


' 1523t 


Clement VII ' 


1534+ 


Paul III . . . . ' 


1549+ 


Julius III • 


1555+ 


Marcellus II ■ 


1555+ 


Paul IV • 


1559+ 


Pius IV ' 


1566+ 


St. Pius V • 


1572+ 


Gregory XIII ' 


1585+ 


SixtusV 


' 1590+ 



Urban VII a. d. 1590+ 

Gregory XIV '• 1591+ 

Innocent IX '' 1592+ 

Clement VIII " 1605+ 

Leo XI '• 1605t 

PaulV " 1621+ 

Gregory XV " 1623+ 

Urban Vlll " 1644+ 

Innocent X '• 1655+ 

Alexander VII '• 1667+ 

Clement IX '• 1669+ 

Clement X '• 1676+ 

Innocent XI " 16891 

Alexander VIII.... " 1691+ 



Innocent XII A, 


D. 1700+ 


Clement XI 


' 1721+ 


Innocent XIII ' 


' 1724+ 


Benedict XIII • 


• 1730+ 


Clement XII 


• 1740+ 


Benedict XIV ' 


' 17o8+ 


Clement XIII ' 


' 1769+ 


Clement XIV ' 


• 1774+ 


Pius VI . . . . ' 


' 1799+ 


PiusVn ' 


' 1823+ 


Leo XII ' 


' 1829+ 


Pius VIII ' 


' 1831+ 


Gregory XVT ' 


' 1846+ 


Pius IX 


' 1878+ 



.^i^'- 

>1^ 




?//.^: 



His Holiness Poue Leo XIII. 



ITALY AND THE NETHERLANDS SINCE 15 00. 303 



DYNASTIC ASCENDENCIES IN ITALY SINCE 1500. 

Milan.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. (after 1545) till 1556. 

Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 

Austrian Hapsburg after 1713 (intermission during French Revolution) till 1859. 

United Italy under House of Savoy since 1859. 
Venice.— Independent till the French Revolution, 1797. 

Austrian after 1815 till 1866. 

United Italy under House of Savoy since 1866. 
Tuscany.— Medici Grand Dukes, after 1530 till 1737. 

Austrian Appanage (branch line) through Francis of Lorraine, husband of Maria 
Theresa (with intermission during the Frencli Revolution), till 1860. 

United Italy under House of Savoy since 1860. 
Naples.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. till 1.556. 

Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 

Austrian Hapsburg, after 1713, till 1738. 

Spanish Bourbon (branch line) till 1860 (intermission during French Revolution). 

United Italy under House of Savoy after I860. 
Sicily.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. till 1556. 

Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 

Possession of Savoy, after 1713, till 1720. 

Austrian Hapsburg till 1738. 

Spanish Bourbon (branch line, Naples and Sicily) till 1860. 

United Italy, after 1860. 
Sardinia.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. till 1556. 

Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 

Austrian Hapsburg, after 1713, till 1720. 

House of Savoy till the present time. 

The smaller Italian states are omitted. 



DYNASTIC ASCENDENCIES IN THE NETHERLANDS SINCE 1500. 

Holland.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. (from Burgundian inheritance^ till 1556. 

Spanish Hapsburg till 1566. 

Independent Republic till French Revolution, 1794. 

Kingdom of United Netherlands, after 1815, till 18.30. 

Separate Kingdom of Holland since 1830. 
Belgium.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. (from Burgundian inheritance) till 1556. 

Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 

Austrian Hapsburg, after 1713, till French Revolution, 1794. 

Kingdom of United Netherlands, after 1815, till 1830. 

Sepai-ate Kingdom of Belgium since 1830. 



304 SOVEREIGNB OF THK 10th CENTURY 



FRENCH RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 

Bonaparte, till a. d. 1816 

Louis XVIU. till " tl834 

Charles X. deposed '• 1830 

Louis Philippe depose! " 1848 

Napoleon III. deposed " 1870 

REPUBLICAN PRESIDENTS. 

Thiers, till " 18T3 

MacMahon, resigned "'' 1879 

Grevy 

PRUSSIAN RULERS, IOth CENTURY. 

Frederick William III., till ". a. d. 1840 

Frederick William IV., till " 1860 

Emperor William. (Imperial title, after 1871.) 

AUSTRIAN RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 

Francis II., after 1806 as Emperor Francis I. of Austria (p. 205), till a. d. 1832 

Ferdmand IV. , abdicated " 1848 

Francis Joseph. 

SPANISH RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 

Charles IV., till a. d. 1808 

Ferdinand VII., till " 1833 

Isabella II., deposed •' 1868 

Amadous, abdicated " 1870 

Alphonso II. 

KINGS OF ITALY, 19th CENTURY. 

Victor Emmanuel, till a. d. 1878 

Humbert. 

Synchronistic Exercise on the 16th Century.— Write out a new table, uniting the 
chronologies for Germany and France at pp. 245, 269. Arrange the dates in the order of time. 

Synchronistic Exercise on the 17th Century.— Write out a new table, uniting the 
chronologies for Germany and France at pp. 253, 282. 

Synchronistic Exercise on the 18th Century.— Write out a new table, uniting the 
chronologies for Germany and France at pp. 260, 289. 

Geographical Exercise on the 19th Century.— Write out, in order of time, with 
the dates, a list of territories gained by Prussia in the 19th century, a list of the acquisitions 
by which the kingdom of modern Italy has been formed, a list of the territories lost by 
Austria since 1815, a list of the territorial gains and losses of France since 1815. 



BOOK III. 

MODERN HISTORY 



(CONTINUED.) 



IRELAND; ENGLAND; SCANDINAVIA; RUSSIA; 
POLAND; AND TURKEY. 



IRELAND 

FIKST PERIOD. 



FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES TO THE FIFTH CENTURY. 

The Race.— The Irish nation belongs to a race mentioned in previous 
pages (p. 31)— the Celtic or Keltic. (The fii*st orthography is general, the latter 
is used preferably by men of science.) Of this race the French nation is also a 
member, though mixed with foreign elements, while the blood of the Spanish 
is a mixture of Celtic with Iberian. The same Celtic race once peopled the 
whole of England and Scotland. The Welsh and the Highland Scotch are 
its existing representatives in these countries. 

Some general characteristics of the Celtic race have been mentioned 
in the History of France. The Celts are by nature enthusiastic and impulsive, 
spirited, quick, and endowed with much natural genius. The wit of the French 
and Irish is notoriously rapid and delicate, as opposed to the slow and some- 
times ponderous humor of the English. The Highlanders of Scotland were 
renowned, and still are, among the British regiments, for their rapid and head- 
long battle onslaughts, and the gallant dash of French and Irish soldiers is also 
famous. The Welsh have been obscured in modern times by being swallowed 
up in general English society, but their natural genius, like that of the Irish 
and the French, is superior to that of the Anglo Saxon English. In musical 
talent they are known to excel. Their genius inspired the literature of Eng- 
land in its early days (see England, under 15th century), and also furnished it 
with the fables on which both Tennyson and Edmund Spenser have depended. 

The Irish Celts.— No other country has shown the Celtic traits so clearly 
and held to them so firmly as Ireland. The Scotch Highlanders, of small num- 
bers and living in a barren country remote from cultivating influences, have 
figured in history only as brave predatory warriors. The Welsh have been 
nearly submerged by English influences. The French were diverted from 



308 IRELAND. 

unmixed Celtic tendencies by the forms of Roman and of Feudal organism. But 
to these the Irish never submitted^ and thus their character stands pre-eminent 
as a manifestation of the possibilities and greatness of the Celtic nature. 

Antiquity of the Irish.— According to the natural order in which Sla- 
vonian peoples (namely, Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, Poles, Bohemians) are 
placed in Eastern Europe ; while Germanic peoples (Germans, Dutch, Danes, 
Norwegians, Swedes, and Anglo-Saxon English) come next beyond in order 
towards the West ; it will be inferred that the Celts preceded the Germans and 
Slavonians in their migration from Asia. They were naturally pushed west- 
ward by the later comers. So it would be understood how it is that the Irish 
Celts lay claim, and establish it, to high antiquity. They belong to the most 
ancient Celtic settlers of Europe. The Erse (Irish) language is known by 
students to be the most primitive and least corrupted dialect of the Celtic. 

Phoenician Commerce. — The first maritime visitors to the British Isles, 
through whom the ancient nations of Southern Europe obtained knowledge of 
Ireland, were the Phoenicians. First settled as a historic people on the coast 
of Syria, where they were the natural traders between the great Eastern States 
of Egypt and Chaldseo- Assyria, they passed to a sea trade with all coasts of the 
Mediterranean, exchanging for the raw products of the then barbarous Greeks, 
Italians, and other Mediterranean nations, the manufactured products of the 
East. It was from the Phoenicians that the Greeks acquired the first knowledge 
of "lerne"; thus they named Ireland. All the literature of the Phoenicians 
has perished, but a Latin author of the 4th century a. d. (Festus Avienus) copied 
Phoenician records of a Carthaginian temple, dating from the 7th century b. c. 
From this copied record of the 7th century before Christ it appears that Ireland 
had been known to this people from " ancient " times as the " Sacred Island." 

PhCBnician Influence.— The Phoenicians are held to have made their 
first trading voyages to the British Isles as early as B, c. 1300, and the descrip- 
tion of the poet shows a more intimate acquaintance with lerne (Ireland) than 
with Albion (England). The Phoenicians had extensive settlements in Spain, 
not only the famous Gades (Cadiz), and along the south and eastern coast, but 
also along the shore of Galicia. From the existence of these settlements on 
the west coast of Spain we can understand more readily how an active inter- 
course could have been maintained with Ireland. From Cape Ortegal to Cape 
Clear is 150 leagues, two-thirds of the way in sight of land. 

Ancient Navig-ation.— Julius Caesar describes the large seaworthy vessels of the Veneti 
on the west coast of France, with leathern sails, and iron anchors and iron cables, and the 
Phoenicians were no less provided with vessels which could brave the ocean. (About 600 b. c. 
they had circumnavigated Africa.) The boats of the Irish themselves were apparently of 
frailer description— of hide- covered wicker work ; but there is no doubt that they made voy- 



EARLY HISTORY. 309 

ages of extent in these boats, possibly using stronger ones on occasion. They reached Ice- 
land, for instance, in the 8th century after Christ, and were used to remaining for days out of 
sight of land. 

Early Civilization. — This intercourse with the Pbcenicians, well authen- 
ticated as it is, assists us to compreheud how this island might boast, centuries 
before Christ, of wealth, luxury, and civilization. The earliest Irish alphabet 
consisted, like the Phcenician, of sixteen letters, and was doubtless drawn from 
it. Carved inscriptions in this " Ogham " writing are found. To the Phceni- 
cian period are attributed the coal-mining excavations at Ballycastle, on the 
coast of Antrim, Other mining excavations bear close resemblance to mines 
in Cornwall, attributed to the Phoenicians. Beads of Egyptian manufacture 
have been found, and swords exactly resembling those of Carthaginian style, 
as elsewhere known. 

The Irish Coramerce with Spain, which continued in the Roman period, is brought 
vividly to the imagination by a phrase found in Tacitus, the Roman historian of the 1st cen- 
tury A. D. He remarks that the waters and harbors of Ireland were better known through the 
resort of commerce and navigation than those of Britain. This evidently could be only 
through a Spanish Roman medium. The remark of Tacitus is curiously supported by the 
geography of Ptolemy, of the 2d century a, d., who makes some remarkable errors in the 
geography of North Britain, but shows considerable accuracy as to Ireland ; and yet most of 
Britain was Roman possession at the time, and Ireland was not. Ptolemy gives names of 
tribes in Southern Ireland corresponding with names of tribes in Spain. The river Kenmare 
was called lerne ; there was a river of the same name in Spain. All these points give credence 
to the tradition which peoples Ireland by Celtic tribes from Spain. According to the Bards 
the sons of Milesius had sailed from the Tower of Betauzos in Galicia. (In our own times 
Kinsale and Galway have the physiognomy of Spanish towns.) 

Ireland settled from. Spain.— Thus, from the known intercourse with Phoenicians and 
with Spain, it is natural to argue that the first settlements of the island by Celts were from 
Spain : not from Gaul or Britain. If the Irish Celts had passed over from Britain, it would be 
difficult to explain why intercourse with Spain should not have been equally active for both 
islands. 

Early History. — The chronicles and ancient traditions of the 
country carry back the lines of Irish kings more than a thousand 
years before Christ. As the Celtic settlement preceded, or was at 
least contemporary with, the earliest Phoenician trading expeditions, 
there is no reason for questioning the existence of the Irish royal 
dynasties at this early time. Authenticity of detail and approximate 
accuracy of date are generally conceded from about the year 300 b. c. 
downward. About this time the historian Tigernach— of the 4th 
century a, d., a thoroughly sober and matter-of-fact writer — 



310 IRELAND. 

begins his account. The building of a splendid palace at Ema- 
nia, not far from Tara, is recorded for the reign of Kimbaoth at 
this time. 

The lists of kings, and details of their lives, run on clearly 
enough from this point to the time of St. Patrick. This was the 5th 
century A. D., the time of the overthrow of the West-Roman Empire. 

Notwithstanding the proximity of the Roman rule in Britain, no 
attempt was ever made to subdue the island by Roman arms. The 
Irish institutions, laws, and customs, as far as they did not conflict 
with Christianity, were therefore transmitted unbrokeu from the 
Pagan to the Christian period. This is why the Celtic institutions 
can be studied in their purest form only in this country. 

Institutions.— The most remarkable peculiarity of institution regards the method of 
holding land. Land was owned in common bj* the clan, i. e., by a community of one family 
blood. Every clansman had an equal right to, and share in the land, by virtue of his family 
membership. The absence of selfish and mercenary traits in Irish character is one expression 
and result of this race custom. Or it would be equally well to say that the absence of selfish- 
ness could alone explain the custom. The aversion to living in walled tOAvns or castles and 
to the use of body armor— traits apparent as national habits even in times when these things 
seemed to be necessary — all point to u conception of life in which men are not hunted by their 
fellows, or taken unfair advantage of by others. 

The Irish, law was called " Brehon " law. The Brehons were legislators who were at the 
same time jndges and lawyers. Their punishments were mild, their traditions humane and 
generous, but they were respected and obeyed. 

The Bards.— An equally important class was that of the Bards, at once poets and mu- 
sicians, who also were the guardians of history and tradition. Irish poetry holds high rank. 
The use of rhyme, generally attributed to the Arabs in Spain, is found in an Irish Latin poem 
of the 5th century A. D., the earliest instance of its use. The use of the harp is attested as far 
back as the 7th century b. C. at least. An author of the 12th century A. d., otherwise hostile to 
the Irish, speaks of their music in terms of enthusiastic admiration. The Welsh bards were 
accustomed to receive their instruction in Ireland as late as the 11th century. Lord Bacon says 
that no harp has so melting and prolonged a sound as the Irish 

The hospitality which is still proverbial in our own time, was always a national 
virtue. The story of a chief who was about to burn his castle as an excuse for sending his 
guests home, rather than confess that he had no more stores of provisions for them, is of late 
date— perhaps a fable ; but the extravagance and profusion of attention to strangers and guests 
find illustration in every period. Permanent signs signifying that every wayfarer should turn 
aside for gratuitous entertainment have been known to exist down to late times. The English 
historian, Bede, tells us that foreign students were not only given gratuitous instruction, but 
also were gratuitously fed, clothed and lodged in the Irish schools of learning. 

The G-overnment was patriarchal monarchy, A supreme king was chosen, ruling from 
Tara, but his power was rather that of a nominal than of an actual head. The minor king- 



SECOND PERIOD, 



311 



doms over which ho ruled were often practically independent, and much contention pre- 
vailed among them, as well as among the clans themselves. These contentions were, how- 
ever, more as to points of honor in the matter of precedence than for gain or conquest. The 
successor of a king was generally appointed in his lifetime, and called " Tauist." The Tanist 
thus became a sort of rival kiug, and many small wars were fought in consequence. 

The virtues of character and of institutions which Ireland boasts in her pagan period 
undoubtedly explain the wonderful rapidity of Christian conversion. The lack of Irish martyrs 
was made a reproach by the Norman barons, when they invaded the island, but it is the 
highest test of Irish civilization in pagan times that Christianity made its way without perse- 
cution and almost without resistance. The Irish Druids who, with the Bards and Brehons, 
made up the three especially esteemed and favored classes, must have been in the 5th century, 
A. D., rather men of science and of learning than devotees of the cruel mysteries undoubtedly 
known to Druidism in other countries and in earlier times. 

The Monumental remains of the Irish Druid worship are of the same kind as are 
found in England and in France. Circles of upright stones of large size, like that at Stone- 



1 




W'- ^, ^^^^^^^ 


^^^^^^^^H 



Druid Worship. 

henge in England, served as open-air temples for the religious rites. Cromleachs, or Dolmens 
(p. 175), large stones, supported at one end or both ends by others, served at once as tombs 
and altars of sacrifice. Menhirs, single erect blocks of large size, were symbols, as with the 
PhcBuicians, of divinity. The partial dependence, at least, of Celtic Druidism on Eastern influ- 
ence is made probable by the consideration that the art of moving the immense blocks of stone 
used in the Dolmens and Menhirs was an Eastern art, and by many customs and verbal analo- 
gies pointing to Eastern sun and fire worship. 

Map Study.— See modern maps for Galicia, Cape Ortegal, Cape Clear, Ballycastle, Antrim, 
Cornwall, Kinsale, Galway, Tara, Stonehenge. 



SECOND PERIOD: FROM A. D. 432 TO ABOUT 800. 

Conversion to Christianity.— It is not supposed that St. 
Patrick's mission, a. d. 432, brought the first knowledge of Chris 



312 



IRELAND 




" St. Kevin's Kitchen," Glendalough. 
(An Oratory of the Uh Century.) 



tianity to Ireland; St. Patrick speaks of being in sections " where 

no missionary had been before." The terms of his mission from 

Pope Celestine were to 
those "behoving in Christ," 
and there is no reason for 
thinking that the British, 
under Eoman rule, could 
have numbered many 
Christians as early as the 
2d century, without some 
influence on the neighbor- 
ing country. However, it 
is certain that Ireland was 
generally Pagan before St. 
Patrick, and generally 
Christian from the time of 

his mission. King Leoghaire (Leary) was ruling over the country 

when the Saint appeared at the Court of Tara. 

St. Patrick was bom 387 a. d. near Bonlogne (in Northeastern Gaul). His parents 
were people of rank. In the disturbances which France (then part of the Roman Empire) was 
enduring through the German attacks on the Rhine frontier, her coasts were also exposed to 
predatory excursions. The Irish king, Nial, " of the Nine Hostages," made a descent on the 
coast and carried St. Patrick with other captives to Ireland, a. d. 403. Here he became a slave 
and a herdsman of sheep in the County of Antrim. His master was named Milcho. In the 
seventh year of slavery he made his escape and returned to Gaul. He then studied four years 
in the monastery of St. Martin, near Tours. 

Having placed himself under the instruction of St. German of Auxerre, he accompanied him 
in 429 to Britain to combat the Pelagian heresy. Hence he was recommended by St. German 
to the Pope as a fit person to undertake a mission to Ireland. Meantime Palladius had been 
despatched for this purpose, 431 A. D. Some of his disciples made known the death of 
Palladius to St. Patrick, and he then landed in Ireland, 433 A. d., at Dublin (probably). 

His first pronounced success was in braving the king and his ministers and court at Tara. 
His bearing and sermons won him the tolerance of Leary, though the king does not appear 
to have been himself a convert. Leary's leading Bard instantly devoted his talents to Chris- 
tianity, and from this day till his death, in 465, the career of St. Patrick was one of constant 
activity and constant success. His work was organized and established by the foundation 
of the Episcopal seat of Armagh, not far from the ancient palace of Emania. 

Irish Inja-Uenee on Europe. — Ireland owes lier brilliant period in the 
centuries following St. Patrick not only to natural genius. This w^as assisted 



SECOND PERIOD. 313 

bj general causes. In the disturbances and convulsions wMch England, 
France, Spain, and Italy suffered by tlie German invasions, Ireland was at peace. 
In the revolution and break up which European society exj)erienced in passing 
from antiquity to the Middle Age, Irish institutions were unchanged. 

This period of revolution and disturbance, as we shall notice from preceding 
pages and especially from the accounts under the heading of German History, 
was in the 5th, 6th, Tth, and 8th centuries especially. (With Charlemagne, about 
800 A. D., the reorganization of Europe begius.) In these centuries Ireland was 
not only protected by her insular position from the inroads of barbarism, but 
the civilization and culture of the other countries also sought refuge and pro- 
tection here in the persons of nearly all learned and studious men of the times. 

The Irish, schools were frequented by thousands of foreigners, so that the biographies of 
the ecclesiastics of other European countries mention their studies in them generally as a 
matter of course. Not only did the Irish universities— especially famous those of Lismore, 
Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Bangor— thus diffuse learning and culture over other countries by 
the return home of their own native students, but the Irish themselves became the missionaries 
of Europe. 

Irish Learning". — Their standing as men of letters and of mind is not simply one of com- 
parative excellence. The Irish poet Sedulius (Shiel), contemporary of St. Patrick, but not 
resident in Ii-eland, was the author, among other works of acknowledged merit, of a spirited 
poem upon the life of Chiist, the Paschale Ojn/s, from which the Catholic Church has selected 
some of her most beautiful hymns. Adamnan's life of St. Columba, written in the 7th cen- 
tury, is considered a model of exceDent Latin style. In the 8th century Virgilius (Fcargal), 
afterwards Bishop of Salzburg, asserted the doctrine of the earth's rotundity in a time when 
the belief in this truth had apparently disappeared. In the 9th century the layman Scotus Eri- 
gena was a renowned master of philosophy and dialectics at the Court of Charlemagne. In 
the 10th century the English Saint Dunstan owed his learning in arithmetic, geometry, astrono- 
my, and music, to the instruction of Irish monks at Glastonbury. In the 11th century lived 
the Irish historians Tigernach and Marianus Scotus, the latter long resident at Fulda in Ger- 
many, and author of the first General History attempted in medieval times. 

Irish Missions. — It was in the time immediately following St. 
Patrick's, that Irish missionaries to foreign countries were especially 
active— the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries being those in which other 
countries were most backward. In order of time the first, and also 
first in order of importance, was St. Columba, or Columbkill, born 
of the royal family of the ISTials (O'^eils) of Ulster, on the father's 
side, and of a princely house of Leiuster on the side of his mother. 

lona.— Since the 3d century (258 A. d.), a branch of the Nial 
family had established a colony in Scotland, coiTCsponding at first 
to the territory of .Argyle, then reaching into Ross and Perth, 



314 



IRELAND 



and including the islands of the Hebrides. From the king of 
this colony, his relative Oonal, Columbkill obtained a grant of the 
island of lona, and here he founded one of the most celebrated 
monasteries of the world. This island is still covered with ruins 
of ecclesiastical structures. From lona went forth the mission- 




TIk' Ruins of lona. 



aries who converted the Picts of Scotland and of the Orkneys. 
Columbkill himself penetrated beyond the Grampians, and was per- 
sonally no less the missionary of Scotland than St. Patrick was the 
missionary of Ireland. The Saint died in 596. The year in which 
the first Roman missionaries landed in Kent was 597. 

St. Columba.— " Of bis tenderness as well as energy of character tradition and his biog- 
raphers have recorded many instances; among others, bis habit of ascending an eminence every 



SECOND PERIOD. 315 

evening at sunset, to look over towards the coast of his native land. The spot is called by the 
islanders to this day ' the place of the back turned upon Ireland.' The fishermen of the 
Hebrides long believed they could see their saint flitting over the waves after every new storm, 
counting the islands to see if any of them had foundered."— (McGeb.) In Trinity College, 
Dublin, is now preserved a splendid MS. copy of the Four Gospels in a cover richly ornamented 
with gold. It is held to be the same one long kept in the monastery of Kells and written by 
the hand of St. Columbkill. 

Lindisfarne. — In the time following his death, lona sent out the Apostle of North Eng- 
land, St. Aidau, just before the middle of the 7th century. He established on the island of 
Lindisfarne, below the mouth of the Tweed, a monastery which became the centre of Chris- 
tian influence and civilization for the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria, parent of the Bishopric 
of Durham and of the Archbishopric of York. 

Irish Missions to the Franks. — The Picts of Scotland and 
the Anglo-Saxons of England were pagans at the close of the 6th 
century, but the Christian population of France had sunken into a 
degradation which needed missionary labor no less. The barbarism 
of the German Franks, first christianized under Clovis, only a cen- 
tury before, had reacted on the Christian Eoman population of 
Gaul. It was in this country that another Irish Apostle first became 
renowned. 

Columbanus, the namesake of Columbkill, was born in 559 A. d. 
in the province of Leinster, and entered the monastery of Bangor in 
Ulster, where he mastered both Greek and Hebrew. Devoting 
himself w4th twelve worthy companions to missions in France, he 
founded within the realms of Thierry and Brunehilda the monas- 
teries of Luxeuil and Fontaines (in Franche-Comte). By his pro- 
tests against the wickedness of these sovereigns he lost their protec- 
tion and favor, but courageously persisted in defying their malice. 
He was compelled to leave their dominions, but was well received at 
the Frankish courts of Theodobert and Clotaire, who soon after 
reunited the Frankish dominions. (The various local divisions of 
the Frankish State before Charlemagne have been omitted in this 
history as too complicated and perplexing for students.) 

From France Columbanus made his way to Italy and the Lom- 
bard court at Milan. In the Lombard dominions he finally settled, 
founding in the Apennines the monastery of Bobbio, and dying in 
615 A. D. At Bobbio his coflin, chalice, holly staff, and an Irish 



316 



IRELAND, 



missal are still shown. His memory also lives in the name of 
the beautifully situated town of San Columbano in the territory 
of Lodi. 



Convent of St. Gall.— A disciple of Columbanns was Gallus, who founded on the Lake 
of Constance, in Switzerland, the celebrated Convent of St. Gall. The architect's plan of this 
convent has been preserved. It shows by the various apartments, assigned to monks of differ- 
ent trades and occupations, that such monasteries were centres, not only of learning and relig- 
ion, but also of industry and of the mechanical arts. 

Irish Missions in G-ermany.— In the 7th century an Anglo-Sason king and a Frankish 
king were educated in Ireland— Alfred of Northumbria and Dagobert II. The latter appointed 
the Irish St. Arbogast to be Bishop of Strassburg. His friend and countryman, St. Florentius, 
succeeded him in this office. St. Wiro, of County Clai-e, was Confessor of the Frankish Pepin 
of Heristal. At Ratisbon (Kcgeusburg), in modern Bavaria, the tombs of two brothers, Erard 
and Albert, distinguished Irish saints of this time, were long shown. The reputation of St. 
Fridolin, a native of Conuaiight, lives along the Rhine. He established a monastery on the 
island of Seckingen. St. Killian is called the Apostle of Franconia (Central and West-Central 
Germany). He is the patron Saint of Wiirzburg, in Bavaria. The Irish St. Cataldus, the patron 
Saint of Tarentum, in Southern Italy, belongs to the late 7th or early 8th century. 

In the 9th century Charlemagne placed two Irishmen, Albinus and Clement, over the 
universities of Paris and Pavia. This sovereign, wishing to inform himself on the reputed 
occurrence of two solar eclipses in 810, addressed himself to the Irishman Dungal, of the 
monastery of St. Denis. The reply of the latter ha:= been preserved, and proves the writer an 
accomplished astronomer. Of the same period was the Irish Bishop of Fiesole, in Italy, 
Donatus. 

It has been calculated that the Irish monks held, from the 6th to the 9th century, 

thirteen monasteries in Scotland, twelve in 
England, twelve in Brittany, eleven in 
Burgundy, seven in other parts of France, 
even in Lorraine, nine in Belgium, ten in 
Alsace, sixteen in Bavaria, fifteen in the 
Tyrol, Switzerland and Suabia, others un- 
ooraputed in Thuringia (Saxon Duchies), 
and on the left Rhine hank.— {T/iebavd, 
•* Irish Race.'") 

The Female Orders.— The activity 
A study and the extent of learning in Ire- 
'md itself are sufficiently attested by the 
foregoing matter, but we must not omit 
mention of the Female Orders. St. Bridget 
v/as twelve years old when St. Patrick died, 
and she died in 525 a. d., four years after 
Columbkill was born. From her activity 
dates the institution of Female Orders 




■ifeS^ 




Scriptorium of a Monastery. 15th Century MS. 



throughout Ireland. Her especially famous foundation, at the request of the people of 
Leinster, was the monastery and town of KDdare. 



SECOND PERIOD. 



317 



Irish in Scotland.— From the territory of Dalriada (Antrim) in North- 
west Ulster, it was but fourteen miles to the nearest Scotch coast of Argyle. 
Carbry Riada, of the Nial family, ruler of Irish Dalriada, founded the State 
of Scottish Dalriada in 258, a. d. Community of blood with the Picts of Scot- 
land and superiority of civilization made it easy to establish and extend this 
colony. 

The " Scots."— In the time of the Romans in Britain, and following their 
withdrawal, constant mention is made of the incursions into England of the 
" Picts and Scots." The Picts were the native and barbarian Celtic population 
of Scotland, the Scots were the Irish settlers. " Scoti " was the name given to 
the Irish by foreigners, and long confined to them. From the 3d century, a. d., 
when the "Scots" first settled in Argyleshire, their relation to their Pictish 
brethren had been, in matters of general civilization, that of superior to 
inferior. The influence of the " Scots," as Christian missionaries and civilizers 
from the time when Columbkill established the monastery of lona, in the 6th 
century, was all powerful. Conal, the relative of Columbkill, was the sixth in 
the line of princes of Scottish Dalriada. The first was Loam More, from whom 
was named the district and Marquisate of Lome. The 
successor of Conal, Aidan, anointed by Columbkill, raised 
the colony to practical independence of the mother 
country. 

Kenneth Mc Alpine. — So rapid was the expansion 
and influence of the Irish colony, through the missions 
of the monks of lona, that Kenneth McAlpine, 843, a. d., 
replaced the line of Pictish rulers, and " Caledonia " was 
united under the sway of the Irish, or " Scottish " line. 
Either in direct or female succession it continued to give 
kings to Scotland till the union with England under 
James I. 

The celebrated Lia Fail, or Stone of Destiny, on which the 
kings of Ii-eland used to be inaugurated, had "been brought over to 
Argyle when the colony was founded. After the victory by which 
Kenneth McAlpine, in 843, finally subdued the Picts, it was removed Irish Warrior, 

by him from Argyle to Scone, where it remained till the time of %^;^,^Tin'^S^ny1; 
Edward I. It was carried oflf by his order, enclosed in a stately 

chair, and placed in Westminster Abbey. Thus it became, and still remains, the coronation 
chair of the English sovereigns. 

Proximity of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria to Irish Civilization.— In the time 
of Kenneth McAlpine, Caledonia did not reach south of the Forth. The Lowlands of Scotland 
were part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, as settled by the Anglo-Saxons at the 
time they invaded England. This close proximity of the north boundary of Northumbria to 




318 IRELAND. 

the original Irish settlements in Scotland, enables us to understand the missionary influence 
of lona in the 7th century, when Aidan, the monk of lona, became the Apostle of the Anglo- 
Saxons of Northumuria at Lindisfarne. 

Cession of the Lowlands to " Scot "-land— A century and over after Kenneth 
McAlpine, the Lowlands, i. e.y the territory between Forth and Tweed, were ceded to Scotland 
by the great English statesman, Dnnstan. At this time the old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were 
united under the successors of Alfred the Great, and in the difficulty of protecting North Eng- 
land from the Danes, Duustan wislied to save the rest of Northumbria by building up a power 
in the North against them. The union of this territoiy between Tweed and Forth with the 
earher possessions of the " Scottish " kings was facilitated and cemented by the missionary 
and civilizing influences of lona and of Lindisfarne. It was in the reign of the English Edgar 
(958-975) that the Tweed thus became the boundary between Scotland and England, which has 
ever since remained. 

Thus, an Irish line of Princes, assisted by the general ascendency of Irish Christianity 
and civilization over North Britain, united the territories which became Scotland. But the 
name Scotland was not yet used. This portion of North Britain had been known as Caledonia 
or Alba. Alba (Albania, Albany) was the name used for it by the Scoti of Ireland. 

The word Scotia (or Scotland), as applied to Caledonia, appears first with the Irish 
writer Marianus Scotus of the 11th century. The use first became general in the 12th century. 
Before the 12th centuiy the terms Scoti and Scotia were used indifferently for the Irish, whether 
in Ireland or Scotland. The latter were distinguished from the former as the Scots of Albania. 
Some authors speak of the two Scotias, Ii-eland being Scotia Major. So utterly, however, was 
the memory of the original use of the words Scotia and Scoti at last forgotten that in the early 
16th century some Irish monks, in partial possession of the old " Scottish" monastery at Re- 
gensburg, in Germany, were expelled as intruders. Their place was given to Scotchmen, and 
the expelled monks were accused of having forged, in the annals of the monastery, the words 
Scotia Major to designate Ireland.— (Burton's History of Scotland, p. 202, Vol. I.) 

The "Poems of Ossian"were published in the 18th century by the Scotch author 
McPherson as a rediscovered ancient Scotch poem. Investigation into the authenticity of this 
work has shown that, although modern in its combination, it is based on old fables and poems 
of the Scottish Highlands which had been transplanted from Ireland in the times of the Irish 
settlement. 

The latest and most extended history of Scotland is that of Mr Burton. " Historiographer 
Royal for Scotland." On the subject of the Irish in Scotland he says, p 294, Vol. I. • " We 
cannot thoroughly understand the ascendency so acquired by kings of the Dalriadic race with- 
out realizing to ourselves, what is not to be done at once, the high standard of civilization 
which separated the 'Scots' of Ireland and Dalriada from the other nations inhabiting the 
British Isles. It was as yet a waxing civilization, bringing with It continual Increase of polit- 
ical influence We have no conspicuous memorials of such a social condition, such as the 

great buildings left by the Romans and the Normans. Celtic civilization took another and 
subtler shape. It came out emphatically in dress and decoration. Among Irish relics there 
are many golden ornaments of exquisitely beautiful and symmetrical pattern. Of the trinkets, 
too, made of jet, glass, ornamental stone, and enamel the remnants found in later time [in 
Scotland] belong in so large a proportion to Ireland as to point to the centre of fashion, whence 
they radiated, as being there. There seems to have been a good deal of what may be called 
elegant luxury. The great folks, for instance, lay or ecclesiastic, had their carriages and their 
yachts. Especially the shrines, the ecclesiastical vestments, and all the decorations devoted to 



THIRD PERIOD. 319 

religion, were rich and beautiful. They had manuscripts beautifully written and adorned, which 
were encased in costly and finely-worked bindings. It is to this honor done to sacred books, 
of which the finest specimens belong to Ireland, that we may attribute the medieval passion 
for rich bindings. The testimonies to the high social position of the Celts among the tribes 
of the British isles are taken by induction from the examination of such memorials as have 
turned up in recent times. We know from old authorities that these Celts were honored by 
their neighbors as a lettered people. By the ' Scots ' writers, whether of Dalriada or Ireland, 
the Saxons are spoken of, without any affectation, as barbarians, just as they would have been 
spoken of by the Romans. From the other side, even ha Bede's [Anglo-Saxon] narrative, the 
sense of inferiority is distinctly apparent." 

Map Study.— See modern maps for Antrim, Armagh, Lismore, Clonmacnoise, Bangor, 
Argyle, Ross, Perth, the Hebrides, loua, the Grampians, Kent, Northumbria, Durham, York, 
Leinster, Ulster, Franche-Comte, Lake of Constance, Kildare, the Forth, the Tweed. 



THIRD PERIOD. NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES. 
FROM 794 TO 1014. 

The Danish Invasions. — For the period of Irish history after 
St. Patrick's mission in the 5th century, down to the 9th century, 
the details of royal genealogies, dates, and deeds of the Irish kings, 
are sufficiently distinct. But interest attaches to these features of 
history only when related at length, and attention to such matters 
in brief histories is apt to obscure the salient and important points. 

In the account given of the Irish learning and its influence over 
Europe, it will be noticed that few of the distinguished names of 
Irish residents on the Continent dated later than the 9th century. 
At this time Continental Europe, disciplined and civilized, as far 
as then possible, by the efforts of the Church, was reorganized by 
Charlemagne, and his work was carried on by the German emperors 
of the 10th century. But Ireland was now destined to make the 
experience in a less degree of the terrible effects of the foreign inva- 
sions which had scourged the rest of Europe in the 5th and 6th 
centuries. 

These later invasions were simply a continuation of the earlier 
Germanic invasions, but were carried on by sea and by tribes of Ger- 
manic race living to the north of Germany, still Pagan, cruel and 
bloodthirsty. 



320 



IRELAND. 



The Angles and Saxons who settled in England in the 5th cen- 

tury were Germanic 

tribes from the shores 
of the Baltic and the 
Peninsula of Den- 
mark. There was no 
real distinction of 
blood or nature be- 
tween them and the 
Danes proper, or the 
Northmen of the 
Scandinavian penin- 
sula, excepting that 
the latter had a more 
imaginative and po- 
etic temperament, a 
more chivalric charac- 
ter. 

The incursions by 
which Ireland was 
devastated began in 
794, when the North- 
men landed on the 
Isle of Rathlin, and 

lasted till 1014, when Brian Boru defeated them on the field of 

Clontarf. 




A Lauding of the Danes. 



During- the intermediate time they also ravaged the coasts of France and overran 
England. By the settlement in Normandy, hence named, of a band of Northmen under RoUo, 
in 911, France was protected from the further ravages of their brethren (p. 178). The general 
result of these Danish invasions was the civilizing and Christianizing of the Scandinavian 
nations, by contact with the people whom they ravaged and persecuted. The Christianizing 
process first became general after 1000 a. d. Meantime, England's struggle out of Anglo-Saxon 
barbarism was nipped in the bud. Ireland's more advanced civilization suffered less, but 
suffered greatly. 

The monastic foundations, as seats of wealth and prosperity, offered the most tempting 
prizes to the piratical expeditions, and they were the most accessible to them in location. 



THIRD PERIOD. 321 

Armagh was plundered seventeen times during tiie two hundred years of war. By constant 
war and suffering the morals of the nation were impaired and wealiened. 

Tiae landing's of the Northmen were made with fleets counting as high as 120 
vessels. The largest ships carried from 100 to 120 men, and expeditions of 6,000 or 7,000 
warriors ^vere not unusual. The peculiar geography of Ireland, with rivers opening out into 
inland lakes, admitted the Danes to the very heart of the country without obliging them to 
abandon their ships. The necessity of meeting the Danes in all quarters, without waiting for 
assistance from a distant royal power, tended to weaken the royal authority. The period of the 
invasions is therefore also filled with intestine feuds, and as the Danes became settled on the 
coasts they are often found in alliance with the local Irish princes. 

Five important towns were ultimately held and peopled by 
the Danes— Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick. 
Meantime, during the reign of Flan *^of the Shannon," about 900 
A. D., the predatory incursions diminished under the stern rule of 
the Norwegian king, Harold the Fair-haired. In the middle of the 
10th centuiy, occurred, in Dublin, the first conversions of the 
Danes. 

In the third quarter of this century the brothers Mahon 
and Brian opposed the Danes in Munster. Tliey were resisted in 
Meath by Melaghlin (or Malachy), after 979 Malachy 11. At the 
time of the accession of Malachy II., Brian Born, trained up to 
deeds of bravery under his brother Mahon, had succeeded this 
brother as King of Munster (978). The jealousy between North 
and South was apparent in the contentions of these two kings; 
Brian really the more powerful and able, Malachy II. with the legal 
title. 

Brian Born King of Ireland.— In 1001 Malachy finally yielded 
his title to Brian, and the latter was acknowledged, not only by the 
L-ish princes in general, but also by the Danes of the coast cities, as 
king of the whole Island. 

Just at the time when the Danes under Canute established them- 
selves as ruHng power in England, a last great effort was made to 
subdue Ireland. An immense armament was gathered from the 
Scandinavian countries, and from the Orkneys and Hebrides, then 
under Northman rule. This army was defeated by Brian Born, in 
1014, on the field of Clontarf, near Dublin. Brian fell in the battle 



322 IRELAND. 

with his son and grandson. This was practically the end of the in- 
vasions, which reach a few years on either side of the 9th and 10th 
centuries (794-1014). Tlie Danes of the coast towns mentioned had 
ah'eady mixed and intermarried with the Irish. They were soon 
thoroughly amalgamated with them. 

The reign of Brian Boru is celebrated by the annalists for its vigor and good order. 
In his palace at Kinkora he practiced a truly royal hospitality. The interests of the Church 
were carefully regarded in the matter of endowments. Roads, bridges, and buildings of public 
utility were constructed or repaired. The preservation of the public peace, remarkable in a 
time following the long devastations of foreign war, was strictly enforced. But a strongly 
organized monarchy was not in the genius of the Irish people. It had not existed before Brian, 
and it ended with him. 

The most remarkable feature of Irish society was its development of the family 
tie into a governmental and social system. The consequent existence, side by side, of a num- 
ber of family chiefs— heads of the great clans and their subdivisions— of reaUy equal position 
and of locally separated territorial rule, made the oflice of over-king or " Ard-righ" rather one 
of honor than of actual royal power. 

The national custom of "tanistry," i. e., nominating the king's successor, "Roy- 
damna," in his life-time, was rather a result than a cause of the loose power of the chief Irish 
king. It is to be noted about the frequent contests of Irish rival kings and chieftains, that 
they did not disturb the social fabric, but grew out of its peculiar character. If the system of 
Irish monarchy was a complex and unsettled one, it had one grand redeeming feature. The 
relations of the subjects to these petty kings were never those of oppression, of extortion, or of 
subjection. They were relations of affection, devotion, kindred blood and patriarchal equality. 
Therefore, in the disputes and wars of the rivals we do not find personal aggrandizement or 
personal greed as a motive power. 

Map Study. -See modern maps for Island of Rathlin, Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, 
Limerick, Munster, Meath, the Orkneys. 



FOURTH PERIOD. "KINGS WITH OPPOSITION." 
FROM 1014 TO n;o. 

The Century and a half after Brian Boru is called the time 
of kings *' with opposition." Tlie live provinces of Ulster, Meath, 
Leinster, Munster, and Connaught now appear as five nearly equally 
balanced local principalities. The exaction by the nominal king of 
any decided recognition was frequently opposed by the local jealousy 
of the rival provinces. 

To these provinces correspond the great families of the 



FIFTH PERIOD. 323 

O'Neils in Ulster, tlie O'Melaghlins in Meath, tlie McMurroghs in 
Leinster, the O'Briens in Munster, and the O'Connors in Connaught. 
Such family names now replace the earlier tribal and clan designa- 
tions. Their general use dates from the time of Brian Boru, who 
recommended or enforced it. The O'Briens were the descendants of 
Brian. The O'Neils correspond to the Xials. The distinction between 
clan and family now made indicates a more closely organized society. 
Norman Conquest of England. ^The 11th century, begin- 
ning in Ireland with the victory and death of Brian Born, opened 
in England with the establishment of the Dane Canute on tlie Eng- 
lish throne. He was followed by his two sons. Then came the reign 
of the Saxon Edward the Confessor, followed by his minister Harold. 
In 1066 took place the landing of the French Northmen in Eng- 
land and the Xorman conquest of that country (p. 181). 



FIFTH PERIOD. NORMAN INVASION AND SETTLEMENTS. 
FROM 1170 TO 1509. 

Norman Settlements. — It was in the natural course of events 
that a Xorman conquest of Ireland should be attempted after that 
of England. The Xormans had not forgotten the two centuries of 
war which their Northman relations had waged with Ireland, only 
closed fifty years before the English conquest. From the same 
natural association of the Normans in England with their own 
Northman persecutors, the Irish were naturall}^ sympathizers with the 
Anglo-Saxons and with the Welsh. An Irish force had assisted the 
brothers of Harold, Edwin and Morcar, in their continued resistance 
to William the Conqueror after Harold's death, had threatened Bris- 
tol and landed in Devonshire. This the Normans had not forgotten, 
and they knew that Ireland, by its sympathies, had become a resort 
for refugees from England. 

Since the time of the Danes in Ireland, complaints had also 
reached Rome of disorders and laxness of discipline in the Irish 



324 



I R E.L A N D 



Church. St. Bernard had publicly called attention to such abuses, 
but it is not certain how far the reports to which he gave ear may 
have been exaggerated by an unfriendly nationahty. In 1155, Pope 
x\drian IV. commissioned the English king, Henry II., with the 
reformation of these abuses, and granted him the kingdom of Ire- 
land. No invasion of Ireland took place till thirteen years after 
the Papal Commission was issued. 

Cause of the Norman Invasion. — Dermid McMurrogh, 
Prince of Leinster, had carried off Devorghoil, wife of O'Euarc, 

Prince of Breffni (Lei- 
trim). For this crime 
he was deprived of his 
kingdom of Leinster 
and of his patrimony, 
by Roderick O'Connor, 
titular king of Ireland, 
king of Connaught, and 
ally and friend of 
1 O'Ruarc. The abduc- 
j tion of O'Ruarc's wife 
was in 1153, when the 
filth er of Roderick had 
incurred the hatred of 
Dermid by compelling 
liim to restore the lady 
to her husband. Der- 
mid was not expatriated till 1168, when he refused submission to 
the new king, Roderick. 

In this year he resorted for assistance to Henry 11. in Acqui- 
taine, and received from him a patent authorizing enlistments. The 
natural starting point for an expedition against Ireland was Wales, 
and from the Anglo-Normans of this country Dermid sought his 
assistants. Chief among them was Richard Strongbow, Earl of 
Pembroke ; assisted by Robert Fitzstephen, Raymond le Gros, and 




Gate of Cong Abbey. Residence of Roderick O'Connor. 



FIFTH PERIOD. 325 

Maurice Fitzgerald, with other Norman knights, their men at arms, 
bowmen, and Welsh and Flemish mei-cenaries. The Flemings were 
settlers in Wales. 

In 1168 Dermid returned to Leiiister with a party of Flemings. 
He made no claim to the restoration of his kingdom of Leinster, 
and after some opposition, on delivery of hostages and payment of 
fine, was allowed to resume his patrimony. 

In May, 1169, Fitzstephen landed in the Bay of Bannow, 
near Wexford, with a small force of Anglo-Normans. Wexford 
was besieged and taken. Eoderick summoned a national muster of 
the Irish at the hill of Tara. This was well attended. The force 
proceeded to Dublin, but finding no attack threatened, the army 
partially disbanded. 

By the treaty of Ferns, Dermid agreed to do homage to Rod- 
erick, and to take no more Normans into his service. But in the 
same winter, always secretly intriguing to recover his kingdom of 
Leinster, he welcomed the arrival at Wexford of Maurice Fitzgerald 
with an additional force, and employed it in threatening Dublin. 

In May, 1170, Eaymond le Gros sailed into the harbor of 
Waterford and fortified himself near the tow^n. In August, 1170, 
Richard Strongbow joined him with the largest force yet sent over. 
Waterford was taken, and Strongbow married, by previous agree- 
ment, Eva McMurrogh, with the dowry of the kingdom of 
Leinster, after Dermid's death. This death took place in 1171. 

Meantime, Dublin had been besieged and taken, while Roderick, 
who had done liis best to relieve the city, retired into Connaught. 

In October, 1171, Henry II. landed, near Waterford, with 
500 knights and 4,000 men at arms from a fieet of 400 transports. 
Garrisons were placed in Limerick and Cork, and many chiefs of 
Munster and Leinster made feudal submission. The chiefs of 
Ulster uniformly refused submission. Henry sj)ent Christmas at 
Dublin, then held a synod at Cashel for the reformation of the 
Church abuses, staying altogether seven months in the island. The 
persecutor of Becket probably did not materially transform the 



326 



IRELAND. 



Irish Church, but in a military sense Henry did not take an 
actively aggressive attitude in Ireland. It was at the moment of his 
disgrace with the See of Eome for Becket's murder (see English 




Awl 


Ij ^^' 


1 


?. ^^g 


m^^K \. 


/ 


J^J''^^ 


''^^Hb3||B t 


4 


s-i^ 


m... .. i". 


M 



The Kock of (.'abliel. 



history) that he undertook the Irish expedition, and probably to 
gain favor with the commissioners sent to inquire into Becket's 
murder that he held the synod of Cashel. 



Extent of Norman power in Ireland.— The weak orf^auism of Irish mouarchy 
already explained made the settlement of the first Anglo-Norman invaders an apparently easy 
matter. Sometimes by marriage, as in the case of Kichard Strongbow ; sometimes in the 
service of contending Irish princes ; oftener by violence, thoy made themselves possessions 
and built castles in many parts of the country. In Munster, Leinster, and Meath, they were 
most numerous ; in Connaught less numerous ; in Ulster there were scarcely any. The Irish 
were opposed, by national habit, to the use of armor and of castles, whereas the Normans 
were the military experts of all Europe. Notwithstanding this apparent superiority, the 
history of the Anglo-Normans in Ireland is that of a constantly decreasing power. They were 
never themselves masters of the country, and their own feudal tendency to oppose the author- 
ity of the English monarchs prevented this authority of the English kings from being in any 
way established. 

One cause preventing- the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland was a traditional 
jealousy between the English kings and their Norman-Irish nobles. Another was the thor- 
oughly gallant and spirited Irish military opposition— not the less effective because it was not 
combined to win or lose all in a single battle, as with Harold and William the Conqueror. The 
most decided influence was exerted by the amalgamation of the Normans with the native pop- 



FIFTH PERIOD 



327 



ulation. The former, by intermarriage and gradual adoption of Irish manners, language, and 
fashions, became '' more Irish than the Irish." 

Extent of the "Pale."— Three hundred years after the Anglo-Normans landed in Ire- 
land, the territory under English law, known as the " English Pale," was confined to the coun- 
try immediately surrounding Dublin. The English " Pale," in its earher and widest extent, 
took in about one-half of the island, by a line drawn diagonally from northeast to southwest 
through the centre. 

The history of Ireland, from Henry II. to Henry VIII.— i. e., from 1170 to 1509— 
is the process of the absorption or re-conquest of the Anglo-Normans. After Henry II. we 
pass through the reigns of the English kings Richard I., John, and Henry HI., to the time of 
Edward I., about 1300, without finding either intervention or presence of these kings in Ire- 
land, two rapid and resultless visits of John excepted. These were made to overawe insubor- 
dinate Norman barons. In the reign of Edward I., and at the time of his Scotch wars, after 
1290, the Norman-Irish barons, chief among them the '' Red Earl " of Ulster, obeyed his sum- 
mons to feudal service in Scotland. Meantime the power and office of " Ardrigh" were gen- 
erally maintained west of the Shannon and in Ulster. 

(Henry II. had recognized the sovereignty of Roderick over all territories not actually in 
possession of his own subjects, accepting Roderick's feudal submission in return. Cathal 
O'Connor, Irish king of Connaught and Ardrigh, co-operated with John in 1210. Feidlim 
O'Connor of Connaught was on friendly terras with Henry III., and attended his war in 




Kilkenny Castle, Seat of the Ormonds. 



Wales. In Meath, Leinster, and Munster the power of Irish and Norman-Irish chiefs was 
about equally balanced. In the time of Edward I. the "Red Earl," Richard de Burgh, 
descended on one side from the granddaughter of Roderick O'Connor, was the most powerful 
of the Norman-Irish, and his rule was recognized in Connaught and Ulster. His descendants 
adopted the Irish clan system and the name of Mac William.) 

Edward II. carried on war with Scotland till the English defeat of Bannockburn 
made Robert Bruce secure in this country. In consequence of this Scotch victoiy (1314) the 



d'ZS irp:land. 

leading Irish chieftain, Donald O'Neil of Ulster, called on David Bruce, brother of Robert, 
to make Ireland an independent kingdom, and abdicated in his favor the title of Ard- 
righ. 

The campaigns of the Bruces in Ireland carried them over the island, but the pro- 
posed kingdom was shattered on the opposition of the Munster Irish and the old jealousy of 
North and South. David Brace was defeated and killed by a Norman force at Faughard, near 
Dundalk. His tombstone still stands ou the site of the battle. 

The Desmonds and Or tnonds.— Brace's ovm Scotch family was of Norman extraction. 
Many Norman-Irish barons had sympathized with his ambition and assisted it. From the 
confiscations which thus followed their participation in his campaign dates the great impor- 
tance of the tAvo branches of the family descended from Maurice Fitzgerald (hence called Ger- 
aldines), the Geraldine Earldoms of Desmond and Kildare, and of the family of the 
Butlers, now raised to the Earldom of Ormond. (Theobald Walter, a follower of Henry n., 
was raised to the feudal dignity of his chief " butler" in Ireland.) 

Kilkenny was the seat of the Ormonds, and capital of the Pale, and the Ormonds became 
the representatives of its English tendencies, although themselves much Hibernicized. 

The Principality of Desmond comprised parts of the counties of Waterford and Tip- 
perary, with all Cork and Kerry. The chief seat of the Desmonds was Kilmallock (now called 
from its ruins the " Balbek of Ireland ")• They became the great representatives of the Irish 
Normans as opposed to the Norman-Irish Ormonds. 

Thus, after the time of David Bruce (1318) till Henry VII. (after 1485) the domi- 
nant family of Munster was the hibernicized Desmond branch of the Geraldines. Connaught 
was thoroughly Irish. Ulster was thoroughly Irish. Meantime, the limits of the Pale were 
steadily receding, and in the time of Edward m. (1327-1372) his son Lionel, to whom had 
passed by marriage the nominal title of Earl of Ulster, was sent over to assert the English in- 
terests. He was defeated by an O'Brien of Munster, but his name of " Clarence " originated 
in his fictitious victories in County Clare. From the efforts of Clarence date the famous 
Statutes of Kilkenny, 1367. 

The Statutes of Kilkenny enacted that marriage, nurture of infants, or "gossipred" 
with the Irish (i. e. fostering), or submission to Irish Brehon law, should be deemed high 
treason. Any man of English race taking an Irish name, using the Irish language, or adopting 
Irish customs, was to forfeit goods and chattels until he gave security that he would conform 
to English manners. It was declared highly penal to entertain an Irish bard, minstrel, or 
story-teller, or even to admit an Irish horse to graze on the pasture of an Englishman. These 
statutes were never enforced beyond the County of Kilkenny, and were enforced imperfectly 
there. They are best imderstood by parallel with old sumptuary laws against extravagance of 
food or dress. Such laws really exhibit the general prevalence of the customs they strove to 
reform, and are thus the most perfect illustration of their own futility. 

English jealousy.— These statutes have, notwithstanding, a deep significance for the 
future course of Irish history. They show the jealousy constantly exhibited by native English 
governors and administrators for the English-born natives of Irish soil. They show the inca- 
pacity of English nature to comprehend the virtues of a society different from their own, and 
the intolerant spirit of England towards Ireland. Notwithstanding the large numbers of 
Anglo-Norman settlers, it appears that about 1500, and before the "Reformation," Ireland 
was essentially a homogeneous country. The " conquests" subsequent to 1500 dififer from all 
earlier ones in really carrying into effect the spuit which the Statutes of Kilkenny in their own 
time but impotently breathed. 



FIFTH PERIOD. 329 

Through the 14th century the cutting down of the limits 
of the English Pale steadily continued. The great liberator of 
Leinster was Art McMurrogh, and his power is well illustrated by 
the campaigns of Kichard IL, 1377-1399 (successor and grandson 
of Edward III.). These campaigns w^re undertaken on account of 
the tribute paid by the English to McMurrogh and other Irish 
lords for right of way through their territories, w^hich had become a 
tax on the English treasury. 

In 1394 Richard II. landed at Waterford with an army of 
30,000 archers and -4,000 men at arms. In order to reach Kilkenny 
he unfurled the banner of Edward the Confessor, as more popular 
with the people than the Norman leopards. But he could not 
march beyond Carlo w. The w^ay w^as blocked by McMurrogh, and 
his opposition obliged the king to turn aside and reach Dublin by 
the sea-shore. 

A second expedition of 24,000 men w^as equally unsuccess- 
ful in 1398, in penetrating into Leinster beyond the coast territories. 
For the expenses of the second expedition, Richard had confiscated 
the estates of John of Gaunt, his uncle, just deceased. This w^as 
the cause of the return to England of the banished Henry of Lan- 
caster, son of John of Gaunt. Richard was put to death, and the 
House of Lancaster came to the English throne with Henry TV. in 
1399. 

Henry IV., 1399-1413, was absorbed with trouble at home. Henry V., 1413-1422, was kept 
busy by his Freuch wars. In the reign of Henry VI., 1422-1471, and Edward IV., 14T1-1483, 
the Wars of the Roses left Ireland undisturbed. 

At the accession of Henry VII., in 1485, such was the 
practical independence of Ireland that the 8th (Geraldine) Earl of 
Kildare, then Lord Deputy, was not removed by Henry, although 
he took the part of Lambert Simnel, a pretender to the English 
crown. The Geraldines of Kildare, under the leadership of this 
earl, were now the ruling family of Ireland, being united by inter- 
marriao-e with the Irish chiefs of Ulster and Leinster. The 8th 



330 



IRELAND. 



Earl of Kildare continued in office till 1513, the fourth year of 
Henry VIII., king of England, after 1509. 

Map Study.— See modern map for Connaught, Leitrim, Wexford, Ferns, Waterford, 
Limerick, Cork, The Shannon, Dundalk, Kilkenny, Tipperary, Kerry, Kilmallock, Carlow. 



SIXTH PERIOD: 1509-1690. FROM HENRY VIM. TO THE 
BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. 



In the accounts given of the Rise of Monarchy, as opposed to Feudalism, some 

explanations have been given 
of the general causes contribu- 
ting to raise np a system of 
absolute monarchies in the 16th 
century (p. 208). 

The policy pursued by any 
individual monarch vi^as often, 
perhaps generally, inspired by 
personal ambition ; but certain 
interests of the people contrib- 
uted to his success. These in- 
terests were in general those of 
stable society, as opposed to 
one of feuds and petty warfare. 
But the rise of a strong mon- 
archy in England was attended 
with fatal consequences for the 
adjoining island, not only be- 
cause of the contemporary Prot- 
estant revolution in England, 
but also because the English 
laws of land-tenure and succes- 
sion were diametrically opposed 
to those of the race which 
religious intolerance and mercenary greed now combined to persecute. 

During- the reign of Henry VIII. the approaching overthrow of Irish institutions 
was not yet apparent. To the more peaceful society which a strong monarchy seemed to 
promise, Irish public sentiment was not opposed. The kings were the natural antagonists of 
powerful territorial nobles, and the fact that an almost independent country in 1485, the date of 
Henry VII. 's accession, generally accepted Henry VIII. as king in 1541 is explained by the 
policy pursued in the intervening time. 

This policy was to break the power of the great lords in Ireland by favoring the small 
ones, and thus we have the singular spectacle of an English policy which for the time being 
favored and supported the interests of the small Irish chiefs against the great nobles in general 
and the Geraldines in particular. The 9th (Geraldiue) Earl of Kildare, at first allowed to suc- 




St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. Begun 1196. 



SIXTH PERIOD. 33X 

ceed his father, was then repeatedly summoned to London, and finally confined in the Tower 
on various charges. His son attempted an abortive insurrection, incited thereto by forged let- 
ters announcing his father's execution. The imprisoned earl died in 1534; his son was exe- 
cuted in 1537. 

In 1541 Henry VIII. was formally recognized as king of Ire- 
land by a parliament at Dublin, and most of the territorial interests 
not then represented were subsequently bought over. The conver- 
sion of many Irish chiefs into nobles with English titles produced, 
however, disaffection among the clansmen. The destruction of shrines 
and abolition of monasteries, first begun in 1539, increased the dis- 
affection, but it had no leader. The use of artillery gave the Eng- 
lish king a supreme advantage, and the time of purely local insurrec- 
tions destined to success w^as over. 

At the death of Henry VIII. in 1547 no great headway had, 
however, been made or seriously attempted towards overturning the 
Catholic Church in Ireland. 

With the reign of Edward VI., 1547-1553, the raid on the 
Churches and the old faith began to take large proportions, backed 
by an army of 10,000 men, and, more important than any number of 
men, a heavy train of artillery. The accession of Mary, 1553-1558, 
reversed this religious revolution, but did not reverse the natural 
policy of the Enghsh sovereigns to make themselves as absolute in 
Ireland as in England. 

Mary's reign, though it once more favored the Catholics, still 
levelled the way for the Protestant Elizabeth to reverse the order of 
things. The AngHcizing of Ireland required the overthrow of the 
clan system, in which every member held an equal share in the land, 
in favor of a system of primogeniture in which the eldest son of a 
lord owned all the land of the clan. In Leinster, at least, this new 
system made headway under Mary. 

On the accession of Elizabeth, 1558, an Irishman took up 
the gauntlet for his country, who held this revolution of the land 
system in check during his lifetime. John or Shane O'Xeil, Lord 
of Ulster, proved himself the equal of the English deputies. Eliza- 
beth made peace with him, practically on his own terms, but he was 



332 IRELAND. 

killed, in 1566, by Highlanders dismissed from his service, who 
refused to abandon Ulster. 

The Irish Revolt. — Meantime, in 1564-, active steps liad been 
taken to introdnce the Protestant faith into Ireland. In 15G9 Eliza- 
beth was excommniiicated by Pope Pius V. The Geraldine Des- 
monds were practically kings of Munster, and the IGth Earl of 
Desmond now took up arms, in 1573, for the old religion and the 
native institutions of Ireland. The sympathies of the Catiiolic 
countries of the Continent were with the Irish. But a small arma- 
ment despatched by the Pope and the King of Spain served to rouse 
all the energies of England against the devoted province, and to 
clear the way for wholesale confiscations of the enormous estates of 
Desmond (570,000 acres) and of the lands of Munster generally 
(1584). 

Some years before, Elizabeth had written to her Lord Deputy, in anticipation of a rising 
by Shane 0"Neil, to assure her lieges in Dublin that " it would be for their advantage, for there 
will be estates for them who want." It was in this spirit that insurrections were fomented and 
then put down. The more merciless and sweeping the confiscations, the sooner a new revolt 
might be expected, and a new lot of estates for English adventurers. The sovereign who 
swelled her private purse by the sale of negro slaves from Africa, forced by English pirates 
on the American dominions of Spain, showed no mercy to Ireland. With Elizabeth's " colony " 
in Munster began the system of planting Ireland by English adventurers, who drove out the 
gentry to starve and reduced the free clansmen to menial and poverty-stricken laborers on the 
lands to which, by national law, they had an equal claim. 

A new rising in the North under Hugh O'Xeil, the son of 
Shane, and O'Donnel of Donnegal, assumed national proportions in 
1598. The victory of Ballinaboy, two miles from Armagh, spread 
panic over all the English settlers in Ireland. The Earl of Essex, 
himself the son of an EngUsh adventurer settled in Ireland, was 
given an army of 20,000 men and three-fourths of the English 
annual revenue, but failed to make headway. Ho was disgraced in 
consequence. 

The Articles of Mellifont,— Mountjoy, his successor, was more 
successful ; but after three years' effort, during which a Spanish 
armament of 3400 men was obliged to capitulate at Kinsale, he 
gave honorable terms of peace to the Irish leaders, The war had 



SIXTHPERIOD. 333 

absorbed all the revenue and energies of England during the last years 
of Elizabeth. The Articles of Mellifont allowed free exercise of 
religion, 1603. Elizabeth was already dead when these articles were 
signed, but tliey were violated by her successor, James I., under 
compulsion of the English Protestants. 

Ireland under James I. — O'Xeil and O'Donnel were driven 
from Ireland by an intrigue which involved tliem in the suspicion of a 
new conspiracy, and the way was now open for a ^-colonization" of 
Ulster. The entire province was declared a forfeit to the crown. 
Two- thirds of the Xorth of Ireland were given to Scotch and Eng- 
lish settlers l)y a stroke of the pen. To the trading guilds of Lon- 
don 209,800 acres were given, including Derry ; since called London- 
derry. The ancient owTiers were not even to earn their living as 
day-laborers unless they denied the supremacy of the Pope; but this 
law could not be executed. 

In the last years of James I. (died 1G25) similar confiscations, 
amounting to 450,000 acres, were carried out in the midland 
counties of Ireland. But there was still left something for the 
Puritans of Cromwell. 

Ireland under Charles I. — The troubles between Charles I. 
and his parliaments gave new hopes of Irish independence. These 
aspirations were stimulated by the harsh government of his min- 
ister, Strafford, the devious course of Charles toward his Irish 
loyalists, and the wish to restore the ancient laws and rehgion. In 
1641, just before his final break with the English parliament, 
Charles I. bad sacrificed Ireland to a momentary turn of policy, by 
confiding its government to two Puritans, Parsons and Borlace. 
Parsons had declared that within twelve months he would not 
leave a Cathohc in Ireland. Pym, the leader of the Puritan party 
in England, spoke to the same effect. An Irish rising in the 
Xorth, under Phelim O'Xeil, was stained by cruelties which were 
the natural result of the Endish oppressions of Ulster. 

Ireland under Cromwell. — The war thus begun was con- 
tinued with general success fur the Irish cause till the landing of 



334 IRELAND. 

Oliver Crom"well in 1649, after tlie execution of Cliarles I. Mas- 
sacres at Drogheda and at Wexford by his Puritan soldiers stunned 
the opposition of other besieged towns. Cromwell remained in 
Ireland less than a year, leaving liis son-in-law, Ireton, to continue 
the war. It was ended by the capitulations, after heroic defense, 
of Limerick and Galway, 1652. 

The measures were now taken which completed the misery of 
Ireland. Over 3,000,000 acres, in addition to all previous confisca- 
tions, were taken from the Catholic owners, and only the wild and 
barren lands of Connaught were left to the Irish Catholics. Here, 
under penalty of outlawry, the expelled inhabitants were to congre- 
gate before the 1st of May, 1654, and they were not to appear after- 
wards within two miles of the Shannon or four miles of the sea. 

Results of the Confiscation.— In speaking of Blarney Castle, near Cork, a writer on 
Ireland says: "The fate of the once formidable clan of the MacCarthy is similar to that of 
nearly all the ancient families of Ireland. The descendants in the direct line may be found 
working as day-laborers around the ruins of castles where their forefathers had ruled ; and as 
in many instances a period of little more than a century and a half has passed between their 
grandeur and their degradation, it can excite no marvel if at times they indulge the idea that 
what was swept from them by the strong tide of conquest, the eddy of events may bring back 
to them again. We have ourselves seen the legitimate heir of one of the ancient owners and 
rttlers of West Carbcrry pause as he delved the soil, lean on his spade, and point to the moun- 
tains and the valleys stretching as far as the eye could reach, and speak as if they were still his 
own." 

Of the family of Lord Roche of Fermoy, whose estates were parcelled among the soldiery 
of Cromwell, it is related that a Lady Roche was remembered as begging charity through the 
streets of Cork in a tattered and faded court-dress. Of the last Lord Roche, it is said that he 
was, in the early part of the 19th centtiry, a stable-boy in the County of Tipperary, living with 
the servants in the kitchen, but that he would accept no wages. 

The fidelity of the Irish to their relig-ion under these oppressions is attested by 
exact figures. In a country of 2,000,000 people, but sixty had embraced Protestantism down to 
the reign of James l.— T?iebaud. " Irish Race.'''' 

The Restoration of Charles II., 1660-1685, did not alle- 
viate the condition of the Irish. The public sentiment of England 
was Royalist at home, but would not suffer the restoration of Irish 
to their rights, at the expense of Cromwellians in Ireland. 

Under James II., 1685-1688, little was done for Ireland, 
except the temporary gift of religious freedom. Events related in 



SEVENTH PERIOD. 



335 



the English history led to the dethronement of this king. His 
behavior, when seeking by Irish aid to regain his throne, did not 
show chivalry or gain personal popularity. In the battle of the 
Boyne, 1690, the troops of William III., his snccessfnl opponent, 
were double the Irish force, beside an immense superiority in 
artillery. This defeat reflected no discredit on Irish bravery. 

Map Study.— See modern map for Mellifont, Londonderry, Drogheda, Limerick. 



SEVENTH PERIOD. TIMES OF THE PENAL CODE. 
FROM 1690 TO 1782. 

Notwithstanding the personal unpopularity of James II., 
the Cathohc faith of his dynasty — the exiled Stuarts — made 
them dear to the Irish. From 1690 to the death of the last 
Stuart '• Pretender " in 1788 (Genealogy, p. 389), they endured 
persecutions more terrible than any as yet related for the sake of 
their religion and the 
dynastic preference 
which this religion 
carried with it. 

T h. e s e sympathies 
with, the Catholic Stu- 
arts, whose cause was gen- 
erally supported or favored 
by France, explain the im- 
mense numbers of Irish in 
French service through the 
18th century. From the capit- 
ulation of Limerick, 1691, 
when 25,000 Irish soldiers were 
allowed by the terms of capitu- 
lation to pass under French 
colors, till 1745, 450.000 Irish 
soldiers died in the service of 
France. Thirty thousand more 
were enlisted in her armies 
after this date. 

Limerick is called "the City of the violated Treaty." The 
terms here accorded by William III., at the conclusion of the war 




The " Treaty Stone " of Limerick. 



336 IRELAND. 

in favor cf James II., 1691, promised freedom of religion and ail 
oath of allegiance wiiich should not include the Church supremacy 
of the English soyereign ; but these terms were soon violated by the 
English Parliament. They were signed on a stone near the town, 
which has been made a monument of this breach of faith. 

From the time of William III. (1688-1703), through the reign 
of Anne (1703-1714), of George I. (1714-1727), and of George 11. 
(1727-1760), the enactments of the Penal Code against Irish Cath- 
olics were made more and more rigorous, and continued in force 
until the time of the American Revolution. Then first relaxed, 
they were not removed till 1829. The period of William III. 
opened for Ireland with a confiscation, by the Protestant parliament 
of that country, of 1,060,792 acres. Thus, at the time when the pro- 
visions of the Penal Code against Catholics began to be sharpened, 
they had been robbed, by the various confiscations, of six-sevenths 
of the soil, without reference to the inferior value of the land still 
left them. 

The following- account of the Penal Code is from Bancroft's American History, 
Vol. v., Chap. IV. : " Besides exclusion from Parliament and from the elective franchise, a Cath- 
olic could not gain a place on the bench, nor act as barrister or attorney or solicitor, nor be 
employed as a hired clerk in courts of law, nor sit on a grand jury, nor serve as sheriff or jus- 
tice of the peace, nor hold even the lowest civil office of trust or profit, nor have any privilege 
in a town corporate, nor be a freeman of such corporation, 

" If ' papists ' would trade and work, they must do it even in their native towns as aliens.' 
They were expressly forbidden to take more than two apprentices in any employment, except 
in the linen manufacture only. A Catholic might not marry a Protestant. The priest who 
should celebrate such a marriage was to be hanged. A Catholic could not be a guardian to 
any child, nor educate his own child if the mother declared herself a Protestant ; or even if his 
own child, however young, should profess to be a Protestant. 

" None but those who conformed to the Established Church were admitted to study at the 
Universities, nor could degrees be taken but by those who had taken all the test oaths and 
declarations. No Protestant in Ireland might instruct a ' papist.' ' Papists ' could not supply 
tbeir want by academies and schools of their own. For a Catholic to teach, even in a private 
family, or as usher to a Protestant, was a felony punishable by imprisonment, exile, or death. 
Thus ' papists ' were excluded from all opportunity of education at home, except by stealth 
and in violation of law. It might appear that schools abroad were open to them ; but, by a 
statute of King William, to be educated iu any foreign Catholic school was an unalterable and 
perpetual outlawry. 

" The child sent abroad for education, no matter of how^ tender an age, could never after suo 
in law or equity, or be guardian, executor or administrator, or receive any legacy or deed of 



SEVENTH PERIOD. 337 

gift. He forfeited all his goods and chattels, or forfeited for his life all his lands. Whoever 
sent him abroad, or maintained him there, or assisted him with money, incurred the same lia- 
bilities and penalties. The crown divided the forfeiture with the informer ; and when a person 
was proved to have sent abroad money or a bill of exchange, on him rested the burden of prov- 
ing that the remittance was innocent. 

" The Irish Catholics were not only deprived of their liberties, but even of the opportuni- 
ties of worship except by connivance. Their cleriry could not be taught at home, nor be sent for 
education beyond seas, nor be recruited by learned ecclesiastics from abroad. Such priests as 
were permitted to reside in Ireland were required to be registered, and were kept like prisoners 
at large within prescribed limits. By an Act under Queen Anne — all 'papists' exercising 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction, all monks, friars, and regular priests, and all priests not then 
actually in parishes and to be registered, were banished from Ireland under pain of transporta- 
tion, and, on return, of being hanged, drawn, and quartered. Avarice was stimulated to 
apprehend them by promise of a reward. He that should harbor or conceal them was to be 
stripped of all property. When the registered priests were dead, the law, which was made 
perpetual, applied to every priest. By the laws of Wiaiam and Anne, St. Patrick would have 
been a felon. 

" Any two justices might call before them any Catholic and make inquisition as to when he 
heard Mass, who were present and what Catholic schoolmaster or priest he knew of, and the 
penalty of refusal to answer was a fine or a year's imprisonment. The Catholic priest abjuring 
his religion received a pension of thirty, afterwards of forty potmds. 

"No nonconforming Catholic could buy laud or receive it by descent, devise or settlement, 
or lend money on it as the security, or hold an interest in it through a Protestant trustee, or 
take a lease of ground for more than thirty-one years. If under such a lease he brought his 
farm to produce more than one-third beyond the rent, the first Protestant discoverer might sue 
for the lease. Even if a Catholic owned a horse worth more than five pounds, any Protestant 
might take it away. 

"The dominion of the child who became Protestant over the property of the Popish parent 
was universal. The Catholic father could not in any degree disinherit his apostasizing son ; 
but the child, in declaring himself a Protestant, might compel his father to confess upon oath 
the value of his property, in which the court might out of it award the son immediate main- 
tenance, and after the father's death any establishment it pleased." 

Restrictions on Commerce and Manufactures. — As far as 

exclusion from electoral rights is concerned, the Presbyterians of 
Ulster were also included in the disabilities of the Irish. The 
narrowness of English policy toward Ireland is illustrated by this 
treatment of the English settlers. The importation of cattle to 
England was forbidden, and all possible steps were taken to cripple 
the agricultural, manufacturing-, and commercial interests of the 
island. 

Catholic Relief Bills.— After half a century of this oppres- 
sion, the first Catliolic Relief Bill was passed shortly after the 



338 IRELAND. 

beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756), in 1757. It conceded 
only the rights of petition and of public meetings. In 1777 the 
second Catholic Relief Bill allowed the lending of money on mort- 
gage, the leasing of land, the right to inherit and bequeath landed 
property. The coincidence of these measures with the Seven Years' 
War, 1756-1763, and the American Eevolution, 1776-1783, respect- 
ively, will be noticed. The policy of propitiating Irish sentiment 
during these times of strain on the English government is apparent. 
Thus, in 1770, the first slight relaxation of trade restrictions was 
made. 

The Irish Volunteers. — After the capitulation of Burgoyne at 
Saratoga and the French alliance with America (p. 288), the drain of 
regular troops from Ireland required the passage of the Militia Bill, 
by which the defence of Ireland was confided to its own volun- 
teers. Following this creation of the Irish volunteers, and the con- 
sequent sense of power toward England, the Irish (Protestant) 
Parliament began to take strong ground in favor of free-trade for 
the island. In 1780 free-trade in most respects was granted. In 
1782 the same sense of power enabled the Irish Parliament to obtain 
an Act of Legislative Independence for Ireland. 

EIGHTH PERIOD: LEGISLATIVE INDEPENDENCE OF IRELAND, 

1782-1800. 

The Irish Parliament was limited, as before, to Protestants, 
and was not, even under this limitation, a truly representative body. 
Still, this period of legislative independence did much to break 
down the divisions of religious jealousy and intolerance. 

In 1793 was passed an act of Catholic Emancipation from all 
provisions of the Penal Code, except that affecting the right to hold 
the highest offices of state, to sit in the Parliament, or act as judge. 
These beginnings of conciliatory tendencies towards the Catholics 
were naturally developed by the events of the French Revolution 
(after 1789), and the consequent sympathies of all conservative 



EIGHTH PERIOD. 



339 




interests. In 1795 was established the Catholic College of May- 
nooth, the first since the reign of James I., when the last Catholic 
College of Ireland, St. 
Nicholas at Gal way. was 
closed, for non-con- 
formity of the Principal. 
Meantime, the 
spread of French 
Revohitionary prin- 
ciples over Europe, nn- 
settling all society and 
govern me nt, although 
carrying also some true 
ideas as to the rights 
of the governed and 
the injustice of social 
oppressions, divided Ire- 
land in two parties. 
The Revolutionary 
prejudice against sovereigns in general harmonized with Irish 
aspirations for independence from England. Thus the Irish peas- 
antry, the Presbyterians, and the extreme advocates of French prin- 
ciples, were combined in sympathies against the conservative sen- 
timents of the Catholics of the upper orders and of the Anglo-Irish 
loyalists. 

The terrors of England were excited by the menacing attitude 
of the French toward England (especially following the rise of 
Bonaparte, after 1795), by various landings of French expeditions in 
Ireland, and by the constantly threatening preparation of more 
formidable expeditions than really appeared. 

The Irish rising in 1798, under direction of the United 
Irishmen (organized since 1791), was therefore put down with piti- 
less and relentless cruelty (Battle of Vinegar Hill). Meantime, the 
Irish volunteers had been suppressed, since 1793, on account of 



The Parliament House in Dublin before the Union. 
(N'oiv the Bank of Ireland.) 



340 IRELAND. 

the cliauge of parties and of sentiment toward England following 
the outbreak of the French Revolntion. 

The harsh proscriptions of the Protestant parliament after the 
rising, alienated the Irish national feeling in favor of continued 
legislative independence. On the other hand, the anti-French and 
anti-revolutionary sentiments, common to England and so many 
Irish, favored the legislative union with England. This was made 
in 1800. 

IRELAND SINCE THE PARLIAMENTARY UNION OF 1800. 

The general state of the country during the next few years, 
the period when the career of Bonaparte constantly excited hopes 
of independence, may be argued from the army force kept in Ire- 
land. In 1803 an army of 50,000 militia was under arms and pay, 
besides a force of 70,000 enrolled volunteers. 

In this year took place the miscarriage of the rising headed by 
the gifted Robert Emmett, his consequent execution, and famous 
death-speech. 

Catholic Emancipation. — Meantime the agitation for Catholic 
representation continued. It assumed colossal proportions after 
1821, under the leadership of Daniel O'Oonnell. In 1828 this great 
man took the decisive step of procuring his election to Parliament 
in County Clare, in advance of any relief of Catholic parliamentary 
disability, and presented himself at the bar of the House of Com- 
mons. The Relief Bill, proposed in consequence of his step, pro- 
cured Catholic emancipation in 1829. O'Connell himself was 
obliged to procure a re-election, as the Relief Bill Avas not allowed 
to react on his individual election, made before its passage. 

" A lofty column on the walls of Derry bore the effigy of Bishop Walker, who fell at the 
Boyne, armed with a sword, typical of his martial inclinations rather than of his religious call- 
ing. Many long years had his sword— sacred to liberty or ascendency, according to the eyes 
with which the spectator regarded it— turned its steadfast point to the broad estuary of Lough 
Foyle. Neither wintry t^torms nor summer rains had loosened it in the grasp of the warlike 
churchman's effigy, until, on the 13th day of April, 1829— the day the royal signature was given 



EIGHTH PERIOD. 341 

to the Act of Emancipation— the sword of Walker fell with a prophetic crash iipon the ram- 
parts of Derry and was shattered to pieces."— (i/cG^ee.) 

After 1840 O'Couuell began au agitatiou for Repeal of the 
Union (Home-rule), by public meetings which reached colossal pro- 
portions. The English government interfered, forbade the meet- 
ings, and prosecuted the great orator and his associates. He was 
fined and sentenced to a year's imprisonment. The sentence was 
reversed by the House of Lords after three months. O'Connell died 
in 1847 at Genoa. 

After the terrible famines of 1846 and 1847 began an enormous 
emigration to America, amounting since that time to about 4,000,000, 
in addition to the earlier emigration. Georgia, North Carolina and 
South Carolina were originally mainly settled by Irish. 

Disestablishment of the Irish Church.— Next in importance 
to tlie Emancipation Act of 1829 must be placed the disestablish- 
ment of the English State Church in Ireland, under the Premier- 
ship of Gladstone, in 1869. Down to this year Ireland had been 
taxed for the support of an English State Church \vhich did not repre- 
sent even the bulk of Irish Protestants, who were Presbyterians. 

Agricultural Distress.— Under the conditions established by the English confiscations 
in and after the time of Elizabeth, all details of Irish history sink into uisignificance before 
one grand disturbing element— the constant agricultural discontent and sufiering. The oppres- 
sive treatment which began with confiscation was continued toward the dispossessed population. 
This harshness of treatment was increased by the difterence of race between conquerors and 
conquered. The evil of " absenteeism," i. e., of the residence of the foreign land-owners in 
England, prevented the establishment of local ties and sympathies between landlords and 
tenants. The system of short annual leases, and the law which deprives the tenant farmer of 
any right to his own improvements, the habit of managing the confiscated estates by middle- 
men, whose only interest is the extortion of the largest sum of money, and the generally 
oppressive laws as to Irish industry and trade, have produced the frightful state of pauperism 
in Ireland which still continues. 

Criminal outrages and violence were the natural result. Among the soldiers disbanded 
after the Treaty of Limerick began the combination afterwards known as Rapparees and 
White Boys. These first became prominent in the disorders which broke out in Tipperary 
between 1760 and NTS. Similar bands of peasants, leagued against the oppressive land system, 
were known in 1785 as Right-boys. At the same time an organism in Ulster, which visited 
and searched the houses of Catholics for concealed arms, was known as that of the " Peep- 
o'-day Boys," the precursors of the Orange Association. (The Orange Lodges wei-e founded 
after 1795.) They were opposed by the "Defenders," afterwards absorbed in the "United 




342 IRELAND. 

Irishmen," founded by Theobald Wolfe Tone in 1791. These again appear after 1798 as 
"Ribbon Men." 

The Fenian organization of our own time is a later development of associated 
secret resistance to English oppression. 

The Land-league, headed by Mr. Parnell, was a combination to effect, by legitimate 
means and the pressure of public sentiment, a permanent 

O improvement in the Irish land-laws and in the condition of 

the Irish peasantry. Evictions for non-payment of rent, 
supported by constabulary and soldiers, roused Ireland in 
1881 to a pitch of excitement which led the English govern- 
ment to proclaim martial law. This exertion of military 
force against an entire class of unfortunate debtors, whose 
misery has been caused by an oppressive system, is without 
a parallel in the history of nations. 

In 1882 a Eelief Bill was passed by the Gladstone 
Ministry, conceding to farmer tenants a system of govern- 
mental commissions, with power to lessen rents. This step 
was supported by the appointment of a Lord Lieutenant and 

' , , „ ,, ,, Chief Secretary to the charge of Irish affairs known to be 

Charles S Parnell. ; ^ ,, ^ ., , ^ -, x- , .• • . 

acceptable to the Land-league ; but a band of revolutionists 

caused the assassination of the Chief Secretary, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and the Under- 
Secretary Burke. This crime was committed to block the conciliatory policy inaugurated, 
and to embitter once more the antagonism of races, and of history. The discovery of the 
guilty association was effected, and the trial and execution of the assassins followed ; but 
the unhappy results for Ireland will be long apparent. 

Distinguished. Irishmen.— Not withstanding lier misfortunes and op- 
pressions, h-eland lias contributed more than lier share to the distinguished 
men of Great Britain. In oratory and eloquence her renown begins especially 
with the names of Henry Flood, Henry Grattan, and John Philpot Curran, be- 
fore and during the legislative independence of Ireland. A still greater hish- 
man, Edmund Burke (before and during the French Revolution), was probably 
at once the most brilliant and the most solid mind of all British statesmen. 

Of the same time are Barre, famed for his defense in the English Parliament 
of the American Colonies, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan (speech against 
Warren Hastings). Of the following period are Daniel O'Connell and Richard 
Lalor Shiel. 

The great virtue of Irish eloquence, as represented by these illustrious men, 
is its union of inspired expression, with solid argument and logical debating 
power. No orator of English birth has ever reached the same combination of 
sense and form. To Ireland belongs also the name of Arthur Wellesley, Lord 
Wellington, victor of Waterloo (p. 297). 

In English literature the 18th century boasts, in its early period, of 
the famous Dean Swift and Richard Steele, the associate of Addison in the 



DISTINGUISHED NAMES. 343 

" Spectator," as names belonging to Ireland. Oliver Goldsmith and Lawrence 
Sterne belong to the middle of the 18th century. To the latter part of the 18th 
century belongs Sir Phillip Francis, reputed author of the Letters of Junius. 
Miss Edge worth, the novelist, and Thomas Moore, the poet, belong to the close 
of the 18th and opening of the 19th century. Sheridan, already mentioned as an 
orator, was also distinguished as a dramatic author. 

In philosophy and metaphysics Great Britain can boast no more illustrious 
name than Bishop Berkeley, first half of the 18th century. Balfe and Sullivan, 
the two distinguished musical composers of England in the 19th century, are 
Irish ; also James Sheridan Knowles and Boucicault, the dramatists. 

In foreign countries, during the 18th century, the Irish held conspicuous 
positions. The Governor of Cadiz and Spanish Ambassador at the Court of 
Louis XVI., was Alexander O'Reilly. Another O'Reilly saved the remnant of 
the Austrians at Austerlitz, and in the Austrian army list of the century there 
are forty Irish names holding ranks from Colonel to Field -Marshal. 

In French service the Irish were too numerous for individual mention. 
General MacMahon, the hero of Magenta (p. 298), and late President of the 
French Republic, is a descendant of one of these Irish-French families. 

Among distinguished men of Irish blood in America, besides 
the famous Patrick Henry, are nine of the signers of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, and six who took part in framing the Constitution. Of the Revolu- 
tionary heroes, Montgomery, Moylan, Sullivan, Wayne, Clinton, Stark, Knox, 
Hand, Dillon, were Irish. The same holds of Commodore John Barry, "the 
father of the American Navy ;" of George Clinton, first Governor of New York ; 
Robert Fulton, American inventor of the steamboat ; De Witt Clinton, pro- 
moter of the Erie Canal ; of John C. Calhoun, the South Carolina statesman ; 
Gen. Andrew Jackson ; and of Commodores Stewart, Shaw, and McDonough, 
the latter all prominent in the war of 1812. 

Sixteen thousand Irish soldiers fought on the side of the Colonies in the 
War of tbe Revolution. In the Union armies of the late civil war were one 
hundred and fifty-five thousand of Irish birth, and nearly double that number 
of Irish descent. Large numbers also fought for the Confederates. 

For many of the statistics and names quoted above, acknowledgment is made to Rev. James 
J. Brennan's " Catechism of Irish History." 

Special acknowledgments for this abridgment are due Rev. Father Thebaud's " Irish Race," 
and Darcy McGee's valuable Summary of Irish History. The text of the latter especially has 
been freely used. 



344 



I R E L A N D 



REVIEW OF THE PERIODS OF IRISH HISTORY. 

Celtic and Phoenician Period, ante-dating b. c. 1000, until. .... .a. d. 432 

Great time of Irish Christian learning and influence " 433- 794 

Time of the Northmen and Danish Piracies, to Brian Boru " 794-1014 

Period of Provincial Kings to the Norman-English Invasion " 1014-1170 

Period of Anglo-Norman settlement " 1170-1509 

Period of English Encroachment, Confiscation, and Violence. .. " 1509-1690 

Period of the Penal Code and Commercial Oppression " 1690-1782 

Period of Legislative Independence " 1782-1800 

Period si nee the Union " 1800 



CHRONOLOGY. 



Celtic settlement from Spain of unknown antiquity. 

Phoenician commerce as early a? b 

The famous royal palace at Emania, about 

Irish colony in Argyle fouuLled a. 

St. Patrick's mission 

St. Columbkill died 

St. Columbanus died 

Danish invasions began 

Kenneth McAlpine subdues the Picts 

Battle of Clontarf ends the Danish invasions 

Norman settlements after 

Statutes of Kilkenny 

Richard H.'s invasions, just before 

Henry VIII. aclvuowledged by an Irish Parliament 

Shane O'Niel died 

Elizabeth's confiscations in Munster 

Articles of Mellifont. Confiscations in Ulster 

Irish Eevolt subdued by Cromwell and Ireton 

Irish war in support of James II. Battle of the Boyne 

Rights of petition and public meeting granted 

Second Relief Bill 

Legislative Independence 

Rising of the United Irishmen 

Legislative Union 

Cathohc Emancipation 

O'Connell's agitation for Repeal of the Union, after 

Famine and immense Emisration to America in 1846 and 

Disestablishment of the Protestant State Church 

Agitation of the Land League after , . . . , 



1300 

300 

258 

433 

596 

615 

794 

843 

1014 

1170 

1367 

1400 

1541 

1566 

1584 

1603 

1052 

1600 

17.57 

1777 

1782 

1798 

1800 

1829 

1840 

1847 

1869 

1880 



TABLE OF IRISH HISTORY. 345 



TABLE OF IRISH HISTORY SINCE THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO EMPHASIZE 
THE RELATIVE DURATION OF THE PERIODS. 



1st Century.— Druid Celtic Civilization. 



2d Century.— 



3d Century.- 



4th Ceniury.- 



5th Century.— Christian Celtic Civilization. 



6th Century.- 



7th Century. 



8th Century. - 



9th Century.— Danish Piracies. 



10th Century. 



11th Century.— Local Kings. 



12th Century.— Local Kini^s and Anglo-Norman Settlements. 



18th Century.— Normans amalgamate with the Irish. 



14th Century. 



15th Century. 



16th Century.— English Land-tenure and Confiscation. 



17th Century. 



18th Century.- Penal Code. 



19th Century.— Partial Emancipation. 



346 IRELAND. 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON IRISH HISTORY. 

FIRST EEVIEW LESSON. 

From what country was Ireland probably settled by the Celts ? (P. 309.) 

Of what race is the Irish nation a member? 

To what family of nations does this race belong ? (P. 31.) 

Name the other races of this family. (P. 31.) 

Name the remaining great families of language. (P. 31.) 

To what family of nations do the Phoenicians belong ? (P. 32.) 

What civilizations did they unite and spread ? (P. 25.) 

How early did they reach Ireland ? (P. 27.) 

From what place besides Syria and Carthage did they sail there ? (P. 308.) 

Mention characteristics of the Irish nation, and similar traits in other peoples of the same 
race ? Compare p. 174. 

Why is Ireland the most characteristic representative of these general race tendencies ? 
(Pp. 308, 309.) 

What were the peculiar institutions, forms of government, and social life of early Ireland ? 
(Pp. 310, 311.) 

When does her first historic period end ? 

What resistance was oflfered Christianity ? 

What inference as to earlier Irish civilization ? 

What is the date for St. Patrick's mission ? 

Were there Christians already in Ireland ? 

What great revolution in Eoman history was taking place in the century of St. Patrick ? 

Did this revolution affect Ireland ? 

What influence on the succeeding centuries of Irish history ? (P. 313.) 

How do you show the power and glory of Ireland at this time ? (Pp. 313-319.) 

Mention distinguished Saints, missionaries, men of learning, and give details of their indi- 
vidual lives. 

SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 

What were the leading Irish schools ? 
What famous monastery near the coast of Scotland ? 
What famous monastery on the coast of Northumbria ? 
What is the name and time of the Irish Apostle of Northumbria f 
How is the name Scotland derived ? 
When was the Irish colony in Scotland first settled ? 
When did a king of this colony subdue the Picts ? His name ? (P- 317.) 
When were the Lowlands of Scotland added to this kingdom ? (P. 318.) 
How had they been civilized ? 

Name once more the date when the Picts were subdued, and the kings of the Irish line 
became supreme in Scotland ? 

What contemporary event of French and German history ? (P. 155.) 
When did the Danish invasions begin ? 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 347 

What towns did the Danes settle? 

What battle finally stopped the incursions, and what was the date ? 

What Irish king died in this battle ? 

What was the character of his reign ? 

What was the character of the following period as to government ? 

Why was a strong monarchy not developed in Ireland ? 

What were the local divisions of the country at this time ? 

And the corresponding families ? (Pp. 322, 323.) 

What were the features of English history in the 11th century ? (P. 323.) 



THIRD REVIEW LESSON. 

When did the Normans invade Ireland ? 

What general causes ? 

What particular cause ? 

Who was the king of England at the time ? 

Was he a Norman? Ans. No ; he belonged to the House of Anjou (p. 187). 

What were the relations between the English kings aud Norman barons in Ireland ? 

Did this tend to prevent a Norman conquest of Ireland ? 

What other causes prevented it ? 

What was the broadest extent of the English Pale ? The narrowest extent ? 

What became generally of the Normans in Ireland ? 

What statutes show the tendency to amalgamation by trying to forbid it ? (P. 328.) 

Name the English kings between Henry II. and Edward I.? (P. 327.) 

Were they present in Ireland ? 

What defeat did Edward II. sufEer in Scotland ? 

What result for Irish history ? 

What became of David Bruce ? 

Why did confiscations result ? (P. 328.) 

What families built up their fortunes by these confiscations ? (P. 828.) 

Which headed the English interest ? 



FOURTH REVIEW LESSON. 

Name the English kings after Edward I. to Richard II. ? Ans. Edward II., Edward III. 
What king among these came over to Irelaud ? (P. 829.) 
What expeditions show the general independence of the country at the time ? 
How long before 1400 were these expeditions ? 
Name the English kings after 1400 to Henry VH. ? (P. 329.) 
Why were these kings not connected with Ireland ? (P. 329.) 
What family practically ruled Ireland in the time of Henry \T:I. ? (P. 330.) 
How did a country so independent so easily acknowledge the authority of Henry VHI. ? 
(P. 330.) 

When was this? (P. 331.) 

Give the dates for the reign of Edward VI. (P. 331.) 



348 IRELAND. 

What was the course of events for Ireland now ? 

Give the dates for Queen Mary ? (P. 331.) 

What transformation in the land system still went on ? 

What relation has Mary's reiejn to the reign of Elizabeth as to Irish matters ? 

What province was Anglicized under Mary ? 

What are the dates for the reign of Elizabeth ? (Pp. 331, 333.) 

What Irish chieftain held Elizabeth in check ? 

When did he die ? 

When was Elizabeth excommunicated ? 

When did the rising of the Geraldme Desmonds of Munster take place ? 

With what result ? 

When were the confiscations of Munster accomplished ? 

FIFTH REVIEW LESSOK. 

When was the next Irish rising against the oppressor ? 

Who were the generals of the English ? 

What was their success ? 

What were the Articles of Mellifont ? 

When were they made ? 

When did Elizabeth die ? 

Who was her successor ? 

How did he keep the Articles of Mellifont? 

In what province were the confiscations now made ? 

What province had been " colonized " by Elizabeth ? 

What province had been Anglicized under Mary ? 

What province had been mainly always in the limits of the English Pale ? Ans. Meath„ 

Who succeeded James I. ? 

What acts of Charles I. caused disaffection in Ireland ? 

When did this disaffection end in revolt ? 

Who suppressed this revolt ? 

By what massacres ? 

What became of the Iri.sh Catholics ? 

Give the approximate time of Cromwell— of the Restoration ? (P. 334.) 

What English king after Cromwell ? 

What was done to relieve Ireland from the Cromwellians ? 

Who succeeded Charles II. ? 

What events led to his overthrow ? See English history. 

Where did he attempt retrieval ? (P. 335.) 

Give the date for his defeat and name the battle. 

SIXTH REVIEW LESSOK. 

What treaty concluded this war ? 
Who was English king ? His date ? (P. 336.) 
What were the conditions of the treaty ? (P. 336.) 
How were they kept ? 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 349 

Why did the Irish Catholics sympathize with the cause of the Stuarts ? (P. 335.) 

How did they show this sympathy ? (P. 335.) 

What was the amount of French enlistments of Irish in the 18th century ? 

What confiscation in the reign of William III. ? 

How much land was left for Irish Catholics V (P. 336.) 

Mention provisions of the Penal Code ? 

Under what sovereigns was this Code elaborated ? 

Give the dates for Anne, George I., George II. 

When was the Penal Code first relaxed ? 

What are the dates for the Seven Years' War ? (P. 338.) 

When was a Second Relief Bill passed ? 

Name its provisions ? 

What are the dates for the American Revolution ? (P. 338.) 

What led to the creation of the Irish Volunteers ? 

How did this affect the Irish Protestant Parliament as regards England ? 

What measure was therefore passed ? 

What was the period of legislative independence ? 

What influence on Ireland and the Penal Code ? 

What great statesmen before and during this period ? (P. 342.) 

What Catholic College was established in 1795? (P. 339.) 



SEVEN^TH REVIEW LESSON". 

What leading event of European history at this time? 
What influence on Irish parties ? 
What rising followed ? 
What was the date ? 

What body was active in harsh measures afterward ? 
How did this favor the legislative union of Ireland and England ? 
What sympathies worked in the same direction ? 
What is the date for the Legislative Union ? 
WTiat great event followed ? 
Give the date. 

Name the man who secured this result. 
What was his subsequent effort ? 
What success ' 

What event stands next in importance to Catholic emancipation? (P. 341.) 
What general feature of Irish history is more important than its details since the English 
Confiscations ? (P. 341.) 

What fraternities and organizations have resulted ? 
What names among English statesmen belong to Ireland ? 
What names in English letters belong to Ireland ? 
What part has been played by the Irish in Europe ? 
What leading names of American history belong to Ireland ? 



350 IRELAND. 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

What great event of European history took place in tlie 5th century b. c. ': (Pp. 143-146.) 

How long after St. Patrick's mission did the Anglo-Sa.xons invade England ? (P. 145.) 

How long before St. Patrick's mission did the Vit^igoths establish their empire in Spain and 
France ? (P. 143.) 

Same question as to the Burgundians in France. (P. 144.) 

Same question as to the Vandals in Africa. (P. 144.) 

How long after St. Patrick's mission was the great battle with the Huns ? (P. 145.) 

How long after this date did Clovis establish the Frankish State ? (P. 148.) 

How long after this date did Theodoric establi^^h the Ostrogoth State in Italy ? (P. 146.) 

How long after 432 did Alboin found the Lombard State in Italy ? (P. 147.) 

How long after 433 was the Christian mission of Augustine to the Anglo-Saxons ? (P. 149.) 

What Anglo-Saxon State rose to importance after 600 ? Ans. Northumbria. 

How long before died Columbkill, and how long after died Coliimbanus? 

What Anglo-Saxon State was important after 700? Ans. Mercia. 

W^hat Anglo-Saxon State was important after 800? Ans. Wessex. 

What was the relative state of Irish civilization at this time ? 

What led to a decline of Irish civilization after 800? 

What shows that this decline was merely relative ? Ans. The continued ascendency of Irish 
culture over Scotland. 

When did the Northmen first invade Ireland? 

When did they first invade England ? 

When did they settle France ? 

Who was king of England at the time of the battle of Clontarf ? 

Who was French sovereign in the time of Brian Boru, 1014 ? (P. 180.) 

Who was German sovereign ? (P. 163.) 

How much later was the First Crusade ? (P. 183.) 

Who was French king in the time of Roderick O'Connor ? (P. 182.) 

Who was German sovereign at this time? (P. 163.) 

What were leading events of European history between 1170 and 1509 ? (Pp. 170, 209.) 

Who was Emperor when Henry ^^^. was acknowledged king of Ireland in 1541 ? (P. 228.) 

Who was the natural ally of Ireland in the time of Elizabeth? Ans. Spain. 

What prevented James I. and Charles I. from justly treating Ireland ? Ans. The theory of 
an English State Church supremacy, making relicrious conformity essential to political unity. 

What caused the cruel treatment of Ireland in the 18th century? Ans. Hanoverian dread 
of the Stuarts and their Catholic sympathizers. 



ENGLAN D. 



ENGLAND BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 

Our first information as to the early inhabitants of Britain dates from 
the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar (p. lOoj. In 55 b. c. the Conqueror of 
Ganl landed on the island, and repeated his expedition in the follo^\^ng year. 
No settlement or conquest resulted from these expeditions. They were in- 
tended to overawe the inhabitants and prevent combinations for assisting and 
inciting revolt among the recently subjugated Celtic tribes of Gaul. 

The ancient British were of the same Celtic race, and the accounts 
given by Csesar of the Gallic 
tribes supplement his accotmts 
of the British, with whom he , , 

was so short a time in contact. 
We are also assisted by our 
knowledge of the Irish Celts, 4^ 

which is more perfect, to a gen- . "tf*" 
eral conception of the Britisb, 

Their condition was in- 
ferior to that of their Gallic 
and Irish brothers, but was far 
superior to that of the mere 
barbarism sometimes imagined. 
Phoenician commerce was not 
without its influence. The tin 

mines of Cornwall and the Scilly Islands had, from the 14th century b. c 
brought Phoenician navigators to Britain. The lead mines of Somerset and the 
iron mines of Northumberland were also worked in antiquity. Gold coins were 
u.ed before the Roman invasion, arguing not only a certain civihzation, but 
showing also in their design an influence derived from the Greeks of Marseilles 
and Southern France. 

The famous remains of Stonehenge. on Salisbury Plain. NViltshire, are 




"^^AJ^ 



352 E N G L AND. 

among the most remarkable of the stone Celtic monuments common to Britain, 
Ireland, and France. Caesar, in his account of the Druids, the priests of 
Celtic paganism, says that those of France made studies in Britain. 



FIRST. SECOND. THIRD. AND FOURTH CENTURIES. 

Nearly a century elapsed after Caesar's visit before the 
Eomans again set foot iu Britain. Meantime the influence of com- 
merce, and intercourse with the Romanized Celts of Gaul, was pre- 
paring a way for the conquest to be accomphshed. Here, as else- 
where, Roman conquest was a process owing its permanence to the 
civilization which partly went before, and which, partly coming 
after, solidified and strengthened the victories of force. 

It was in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, a. d. 43, 
that the general Aulus Plautius began the permanent Roman occu- 
pation of the Island. It was in the reigns of the Emperors Ves- 
pasian, Titus, and Domitian that Agricola completed the conquest, 
A. D. 78-84. A Hue running between the Friths of Forth and 
Clyde — i. e., between Edinburgh and Glasgow — was the boundary on 
the North, and here was constructed a Roman wall, in the times of 
the Emperor Antoninus Pius, of which vestiges still remain. 

Roman Remains. — A more remarkable work was the earher 
wall of Hadrian, seventy miles in length, between the Rivers Tyne 
and Solway. Its ruins are a testimony not only to the engineering 
skill and science of the Romans, but also to the barbaric valor of 
the Celtic Picts of the Scottish Highlands, and to the care which 
protected the rest of Britain from their ravages. Beyond the wall 
of Antonine, Scotland is covered with vestiges of Roman camps of 
the armies sent against the Picts. Some of these camps are esti- 
mated to have held armies of 30,000 men, and along the wall of 
Hadrian at least 15,000 soldiers must have been kept in garrison. 

For the condition of Britain under Roman rule the matter explanatory of the 
Empire in general is in point Cpp. 12&-180). All its provinces resemble one another in the 
description there given. Besides the ruins of the fortifications mentioned, remains of the 
Roman period still exist in mosaic pavements of villas and town houses, and in subterranean 
constructions for the heating of buildings. Coins, and minor works of art and industry are 



FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES 



353 



abundantly found. On a coin of Hadrian appears the first figure of Britannia. The names of 
towns ending in "Chester" indicate a Roman origin— from castrum or castra, camp. Names 
ending in "coin" also indicate Roman origin— from colonia, colony. 

The early diffusion of Christianity among the Roman British is attested by the firm 
support given the Emperor Constantine during his rise to power by his British legions. 
Names of the Bishops from Britain appear in ecclesiastical synods of the 4th century. The 
first British martyr, St. Albau, died at Verulam in England during the persecution under 
Diocletian, in 304. 

Map Study.— See modern maps for the Forth, the Clyde, Edinburgh, Glasgow, the Tyne, 
the Solway. 




FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 

In the opening of the 5th century after Christ, Britain 
had been a Roman province for a longer period than is covered by 

its whole Protestant ^__^____ 

history. It was in 
A. D. 411, in conse- 
quence of tlie troubles 
in Italy, France, and 
Spain resulting from 
the invasions of the 
German tribes (p. 
144), that the Em- 
peror Honorius with- 
drew the Roman Brit- 
ish legions for service on the Continent. Britain was not at the 
moment in apparent danger, nor was it intended to abandon the 
province permanently. But the thickening disasters of the Conti- 
nental provinces kept the island deprived of her regular military 
force. The Picts of the Highlands grew continually bolder and 
more successful in their predatory expeditions. In these they 
were assisted by "Scots" from Ireland and the Irish settlement 
in Argyle, and by pirates from the tribes of North Germany. 

Among- the tribes of Germany, those on the Baltic shore and on the North Sea had 
been naturally most remote from Roman influence. They were therefore not Cliristians, as 
were, for -instance, the Goths. By nature they were the dullest, as they were in locality the 
least favored, of the Germans. The three tribes which effected the conquest of England were 



Kojii 111 Kiiiu a,l LticcslLi 



354 ENGLAND. 

known to the Romans, by a general name given to the population of North Germany, as 
Saxons. The Saxons who settled in England were from the modern province of Holstein, 
Above them, in Sleswick. were the closely related Angles. Most powerful of the league, their 
name was adopted by it, and gave the name to England. In the Peninsula of Jutland (Den- 
mark) were settled the Jules, whose bands landed first in Kent under Hengist and Horsa. 

The Anglo-Saxons, under which name the Jutes are included, 
although long known along the east coast of England as piratical 
marauders, and just previously engaged in hostile attacks on 
Britain, had been employed by the British to protect them from the 
Picts and Scots. Quarrels as to pay arose and, instead of hired pro- 
tectors, the Anglo-Saxons became the conquerors and exterminators 
of the British, a. d. 449. (See p. 145.) 

The German settlement of Eng-land differs remarkably from the German settle- 
ments of other Roman provinces. The East and West-Goths, Franks, and Lombards were 

joined to the subjugated Roman popula- 
tions by the ties of religion. The con- 
querors settled among the conquered, 
respecting their superior civilization and 
striving to acquire it. But the conquest 
of Britain w^as one of dispossession and 
extermination. The wealthier and edu- 
cated British, who escaped the sword, fled 
to France— especially to Brittany, hence 
named — or they crowded toward the moun- 
tains of Whales, and lost their habits of 
British and Saxon Relics, found in the Thames. refinement in the distress of poverty and 

of warfare, and in the forced association 
with their more illiterate peasant brethren. The conquest of England was not rapid or im- 
mediate. Its gradual process did not, however, lead to a mixture of British and Anglo-Saxons. 
The latter remained pagans. 



KINGDOMS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN ORDER OF FOUNDATION. 

Kent A. D. 440 

Sussex (South Saxons) " 477 

Wessex (West Saxons) " 495 

Essex (East Saxons) " 527 

Bernicia. . . " ^47 

Deira " ^^^ 

East Anglia " ^'^^ 

Mercia • " ^^^ 




SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CENTURIES. 355 

Map Study, with reference to Modern Map of Eng-land.— The position of 
Mercia was that most advanced toward the west m middle Euj^land. It lay in the upper 
valley of the Trent, by which river line middle England was invaded, and spread from that 
centre. East Ang-lia lay mainly between the Ouse and Stour, comprehending the counties 
of Norfolk and Suffolk (North-folk and South-folk). Deira lay between the Humber and Tees. 
Bernicia lay between Tees and Forth. The positions of Essex, Kent, and Sussex are 
implied in those of the modern counties. The kingdom of Wessex first centred about Win- 
chester, was bounded on the east by Essex, Kent, and Sussex, and on the west had a grad- 
ually extending border, reaching to the Severn after 552. 

Down to the year 000, one hundred and fifty years after the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon 
settlements, the British had maintained possession of the whole western side of Britain. The 
extension of the kingdom of Wessex to the west had already, however, in reaching the Severn, 
separated "West Wales" (Somerset and Cornwall) from "North Wales" ; corresponding to 
the modern Wales, but reaching further east (to the Severn). 

In 607, the same king Ethelf rith who united Bernicia and Deira in one Northumbrian king- 
dom, pushed its territory westward to Chester and then added to it Lancashire. Thus the 
British were parted into three divided and therefore weakened sections. North of Lancashire 
lay the third British State, reaching to the Clyde and called Strathclyde. (That part of Strath- 
clyde lying below the present English border was called Cumbria.) Southern Scotland was thus 
far, therefore, on the west, part of a British State, and on the east, part of Anglo-Saxon North- 
umbria. Beyond the Forth and Clyde were the Picts, of the same Celtic race with the British, 
and in Argyle and spreading gradually beyond it, the Irish " Scots," also of the same blood 
with Picts and British, and at this time superior to either. 



SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CENTURIES. 

England about 600 A. D. — In the constant changes of fron- 
tier during the expulsion of the British and the wars between the 
different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, the year 600, not far removed from 
the first beginnings of Mercian power, is a convenient dividing date. 
It was just after this year, in 603, that Bernicia and Deira were united 
as the kingdom of Northumbria, thus reducing the ''octarchy" of 
kingdoms to a " heptarchy.'' The date 600 also fixes the time at 
which the heathenism of the Anglo-Saxons began to yield to Chris- 
tianity. 

The first Christian missions arrived in England in 597, 
despatched from Eome by Pope Gregory the Great. The rival of 
the Northumbrian Ethelfrith was Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose 
sway extended also over Essex and East Anglia. The marriage of 
Ethelbert with Bercta, daughter of a Frankish Merovingian king 
(Charibert), opened the way for the mission headed by Augustine. 



356 ENGLAND. 

For Bercta, herself a Christian, came to Kent accompanied by a 
Christian bishop. 

" Years before, when but a young deacon, Gretrory had noticed the ^\ hito bodies, the fair 
faces, the golden hair of some youtlis who stood bound in the market-place of Rome. ' From 
what country do these slaves come?' he asked the traders \\lio brought them. 'They are 
Angles,' the slave-dealers answered. The deacon's pity veiled itself in poetic humor. ' Not 
Angles, but angels,' he said, ' with faces so angel-hke. From what country come they ?' ' They 
come,' said the merchants, ' from Deira.' ' De irS,' was the untranslatable reply. ' Aye, 
plucked from God's ire and called to Christ's mercy ; and what is the name of their king ? ' 
' Aella,' they told him, and Gregory seized on the word as of good omen. ' Alle luia shall be 
sung there,' he cried and passed on, musing how the angel-faces should be brought to sing it. 
Years went by, and the deacon had become Bishop of Rome, when Bercta's marriage gave 
him the opening he sought. 

" ' Strangers from Rome ' was the title with which the missionaries first fronted the English 
king. The march of the monks, as they chanted their solemn litany, was in one sense the return 
of the Roman legions who had retired at the trumpet call of Alaric. It was to the tongue and 
thought, not of Gregory only, but of such men as the English had slaughtered and driven over 
sea that Ethelbert listened in the teaching of Augustine. Canterbury, the earliest royal city 
of German England, became the centre of Latin influence. The Latin tongue became again 
one of the tongues of Britain, the language of its worship, of its correspondence, its litera- 
ture. But more than the tongue of Rome returned with Augustine. Practically his landing 
renewed the union with the Western World which that of Ilcngist had destroyed. The new 
England was admitted into the older commonwealth of nations. The civilization, art, and 
letters which had fled before the sword of the English conquest, returned with the Christian 
faith. It is impossible not to recognize the influence of the Roman missionaries in the fact 
that the codes of customary English law began to be put into writing soon after their 
arrival: '—{Green, " Short insfory of the English People."") 

Times of Northumbrian Ascendency. — In C17 the North- 
nmbrian king, Etlielfritli, was succeeded by Edwin, whose name is 
retained in Edinburgh (Edwin's-burg), a reminder of the extent and 
power of North nmbria over Scotland (by anion of Bernicia and 
Deira). Under this king, Essex and East Angha passed from Kent- 
ish supremacy to the Northumbrian, and the other Anglo-Saxon 
states also acknowledged its over-lordship. 

With a daughter of the Kentish king, who married the North- 
umbrian Edwin, the Roman missionaries made their way to North- 
umbria, and in beginning its conversion secured for the Christian 
faith the supremacy which the pow^r of Northnmbria over England 
conveyed. Mercia re})resented the heathen opposition. Its king, 
Penda, by the battle of Hatfield, G35, in which Edwin was defeated 



SEVENTH AND E l(i H 1' H CENTURIES, 



857 



and slain, checked for the moment the advance of Christianity. 
But under the new Northumbrian king, Oswald, who summoned 
missionaries from the Irish 
monastery at lona, was founded 
the Irish monastery on the 
Island of Lindisfarne, which 
thenceforth became the strong- 
hold of Christianity in North 
Britain. The opposition of 
heathen Mercia was broken in 
655 by the battle of Winwoed, 
near Leeds, won by the North- 
umbrian Oswi. 

In 668 Theodore of Tarsus was 

dispatched to Eugland from Rome as Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. From him dates the 
organism as to dioceses, even of the modern 
English Church. " The conquest of the con- 
tinent had been wrought either by races such 
as the Goths, which were ah-eady Christian, 
or by heathens like the Franks, who bowed 
to the Christian faith of the nations they 
conquered. To this oneness of religion be- 
tween the German invaders of the empire 
and their Roman subjects was owing the 
preservation of all that survived of the 

Roman world. The Church everywhere remained untouched. The Christian bishop became 
the defender of the conquered Italian or Gaul against his Gothic and Lombard conqueror ; the 
mediator between the German and his subjects, the one bulwark against barbaric violence and 
oppression. To the barbarian, on the other hand, he was the representative of all that was 
venerable in the past, the living record of law, of letters, and of art. But in Britain the priest- 
hood and the people had been exterminated together; the very memory of the older Christian 
Church which existed in Roman Britain had passed away. 

" In his work of organization, in his creation of parishes, in his arrangement of dioceses, and 
the way in which he grouped them round the See of Canterbury, Theodore was unconsciously 
doing a political work. The policy of Theodore clothed with a sacred form and surrounded 
with divine sanctions a unity which had before rested on no basis but the sword. The regular 
subordination of priest to bishop, of bishop to primate, in the administration of the Church, 
supplied a mould on which the civil organization of the state quickly shaped itself. The 
councils gathered by Theodore were the first of all national gatherings for general legislation. 
It was at a much later time that the Wise men of Wessex, of Mercia or Northumbria, learned 




Portal of the Saxon Church at Monkwearmouth, 
Durham, built in 674. 



358 ENGLAND. 

to come together in the " Witenagemote " of all England. It was the ecclesiastical synods 
which, by their example, led the way to national parliaments, as it was the canons enacted in 
such synods which led the way to a national system of law. ""—Green. 

Caedmon and Bede.— To the kingdom of Northumbria belong the two most famous 
names of Anglo-Saxon Christianity before Alfred the Great, namely, Caedmon, author of an 
Anglo-Saxon Biblical poem of the 7th century, and Bede, of the 7th and 8th centuries. Caed- 
mon, a cowherd, became a monk in the monastery of Whitby. 

Bede, " the Venerable," spent his whole life in the monastery of Jarrow. " He became, as 
Burke rightly styled him, the father of English learning. The traditions of the older classic 
culture were first revived for England in his quotations of Plato and Aristotle, of Seneca and 
Cicero, of Lucretius and Ovid. In his own eyes, and those of his contemporaries, his most 
important works were the commentaries and homilies upon various books of the Bible, which 
he had drawn from the writings of the Fathers. But he was far from confining himself to 
theology. In treatises compiled as text-books for his scholars, Bede threw together all that 
the world had then accumulated in astronomy and meteorology, in physics and music, in 
philosophy, grammar, arithmetic, medicine. In his Ecclesiastical History of the English Na- 
tion, Bede was at once the founder of medieval history and the first English historian. His 
last work was a translation into English of the Gospel of St. John. The completion of its last 
sentence was the moment of his death, 755 (bom about 674).'"— Green. 

The place held by Northumbria as the leading Anglo-Saxon state of the 7th century, 
was lost before its close. Cumbria, the English portion of Strathclyde, had been conquered 
from the British, and it was in attempting to subject the Picts beyond the Forth and Clyde 
that the Northumbrian power was broken— battle of Nechtansmere in Fife, 685. 

Mercia became the leading- Anglo-Saxon state in the 8th century.— This 
state now comprised all Central England, from Wales to the Eastern Coast. It reached from 
the neighborhood of Manchester and Sheflield to the mouth of the Severn, the line of the 
Thames and the Ouse. Through the 8th century Mercia controlled both Northumbria and the 
South English states. East Anglia, Sussex, Kent, and Wessex. 



NINTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 9th CENTURY. 

Egbert a. d. 

Ethelwolf " 836-858 

Ethelbald " 858-860 

Ethelbert " 860-866 

Ethelredl " 866-871 

Alfred the Great " 871-901 

Rise of Wessex. — Through the policy of Charlemagne, and 
his opposition to the growing strength of a kingdom which did not 
acknowledge his Imperial rule, the power of Mercia was crippled 
in the 9th century, and replaced by that of Wessex. Egbert, the 
nominee of the Frankish Court, by its favoring policy established 



NINTH CENTURY. 359 

the over-lord ship of Wessex over Mercia and Northumbria, after 823. 
Egbert styled himself king of the English. (See map at p. 154.) 

The Danes. — From the opening of the 9th century and a little 
earlier, a new barbarian influx began to retard or overthrow the 
work of Christian civiUzation in England. The inhabitants of Den- 
mark, of Norway, and of Sweden, also of Germanic blood and nearly 
related to the English, but destitute of the relative though very 
backward civiUzation which three centuries of settled hfe and two 
centuries of Christian faith had achieved, began their piratical raids 
on England. The " Danish " invasions — for as Danes the North- 
men generally were known in England — broke the rising power of 
Wessex, and for two centuries blocked the progress of England. 

Danish Settlements. — Between 866 and 871 the Danes passed 
from pillage and raids to regular settlement. The larger part of 
England was conquered and held by them— namely. East Anglia, 
Mercia, and Northumbria—leaving for the kings "of England" 
only the southern part of the Island and Wessex proper. Thus, in 
the time of Alfred the Great, 871-901, this king was hard pressed 
by the Danes in his own little kingdom, and in his times of greatest 
success his territory reached only a short distance north of .the 
Thames. 

This easy conquest by the Danes of more than two-thirds of all England resulted from 
the jealousy of Northumbria and Mercia. the hitherto powerful states, towards Wessex, and 
from their indifference as to its success in establishing a new supremacy. 

Alfred the Great. — The efforts of Alfred to support the stag- 
gering Anglo-Saxon culture were not, however, the less praiseworthy 
because confined in their range. History has unanimously accorded 
this king the character of a conscientious and earnest friend of 
civilization. 

" While the country was overrun by the Danes he was said to have entered a peasant's hut, 
and to have been bidden by the housewife, who did not recognize him, to turn the cakes which 
were baking on the hearth. The young king did as he was bidden, but in the sad thoughts 
which came over him he forgot his task, and bore in amused silence the scolding of the good 
wife, who found her cakes spoiled on her return." 



360 ENGLAND. 

TENTH CENTURY. 
ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 10th CENTURY. 

Edward the Elder a. d. 901- 925 

Athelstan " 925- 940 

Edmund " 940- 947 

Edred " 947- 955 

Edwig '' 955-959 

Edgar " 95&- 975 

Edward tlie Martyr " 975- 978 

Ethelredll '^ 979-1016 

After Alfred, who died in 901, the kings of Wessex experienced varying fortunes in their 
efforts to be kings of all England. The Danes of Northumbria and Mercia seem to have 
been so far incorporated with the old population that the resistance of England beyond the 
Thames to Wessex was at least as much local as Danish in its character. During this century 
foreign invasions of Danes were not frequent or troublesome. 

Alfred was succeeded by Edward the Elder, 901-925, who subjected all England. 
A dangerous revolt of North England followed his death, but Athelstan, 925-940, maintained 
the supremacy of Wessex, adding to its dominions West Wales,— i. e., Cornwall. 

Notwithstanding Athelstan's famous victory of Brunanhurgh, 937, his suc- 
cessor, Edmund the "Magnificent," once more yielded up to Danish supremacy all England 
north of Watling Street, the road from London to Chester— the boundary in Alfred's time 
of greatest success. His minister, Dunstan, the greatest Englishman of his time, succeeded 
in restoring the power of Wessex by abandoning to Scotland the Northumbrian territory 
lying beyond the Tweed and reaching to the Forth and Clyde (p. 318). Thus was established 
the present boundary between England and Scotland. With a reduced territory to rule, and 
a balance on the north in Scotland against the Danes of Northumbria, Dunstan continued to 
hold them in check. His administration lasted through the reign of Edred, 947-955, of Edwig, 
955-959, of Edgar, 959-975. 

The reign of Edgar is the great time of Anglo-Saxon England. His ships annually 
cruised round the whole of Britain. 

In the reign of Edward " the Martyr," 975-978, the national policy of Dunstan, which had at 
once ruled and reconciled the northern Danish part of the English dominions, was overturned, 
and Dunstan died. 

The succession of Ethelred "the Unready," 979-1016, found the kings "of Eng- 
land " once more confined to Wessex and Kent. 

" The daily life of even the noblest of Anglo-Saxons was that of a half-savage people. 
Their wars and turbulence were not favorable to the cultivation of the domestic virtues. When 
not engaged in war, the nobles amused themselves in hunting and hawking ; and when the 
sports of the day were over, all— master and servant— met in the great hall. At the upper end 
of this, on a dais or raised part, was placed a rude table, canopied with hangings of cloth to 
serve as a protection from draughts of air and from the rain, which often leaked through the 
roof, and round this sat the lord, his family, and his guests. This table was served by slaves, 
who knelt as they offered to each huge joints on the spit, from which the chiefs cut slices with 
their daggers." 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 361 

ELEVENTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 11th CENTURY. 

Ethelred II. the Unready A. D. (979)-1016 

Edmund Ironside, son of the foregoing " 1016 

Canute the Dane " 1016-1035 

Harold, Harefoot, son of the foregoing.. . . " 1035-1040 

Hardicanute, brother of the foregoing " 1040-1043 

Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred the Unready " 1042-1065 

Harold " 1066 

William the Conqueror, of Normandy " 1066-1087 

William II., Rufus, son of the foregoing " 1087-1100 

A massacre of the Danes in Wessex, 1002, roused among 
their brethren in Denmark a spirit of vengeance. The conquest of 
all England was undertaken by King Sweyn, and after his death 
was accomplished by his son Canute. Edmund Ironside, the son 
and successor of Ethelred the Unready, had resisted the Danes 
bravely, but died in a few months. 

Canute. — Although Canute was a Christian convert, his con- 
quest and his early reign were stained by cruelty, but for this he 
atoned by the justice and wisdom of his later rule. His empire 
comprised England, Denmark, K'orway, and Sweden. 

The 11 th century thus witnessed the final amalgamation of the English Danes with the 
Anglo-Saxons. But no sooner was this process in completion than a new overthrow and over- 
turning of English society began with the Norman Conquest. 

The reig-ns of Canute's sons, Harold, 1035-1040, and Hardicanute, 1040-1042, and of the 
Saxon Edward the Confessor, 1042-1065, made no change in English history, except that during 
this latter reign the way was opened for the Norman Conquest by the introduction of Norman 
favorites and fashions. 

Edward the Confessor.— The popularity of Canute as English king had been strength- 
ened by his marriage \\ ith Emma, the widow of Ethelred the Unready. Edward the Confessor, 
who succeeded the sons of Canute, was the son of Ethelred and Emma. But this widow of two 
English kings, one Anglo-Saxon and one a Dane, was herself sister of Richard Duke of Nor- 
mandy. Her son, Edward the Confessor, had been brought up at the Norman Court ; his own 
preferences were for the French civilization which Normandy possessed. 

Harold.— At the death of Edward the Confessor in 1065, his 
minister Harold secured for himself the succession in the absence 



362 



ENGLAND 



of legitimate heirs. The lack of a hereditary title on Harold's part 
inspired the ambition of William Duke of Normandy to make him- 
self the English sovereign. This ambition was supported by the 
Norman tendencies of Edward the Confessor's Court, and by the 
fact that the Danes, who had given three kings to England, 
and to whom Harold himself belonged on the mother's side, were 
themselves foreigners in England and of the same blood with the 
Normans. 

The Norman Conquest — William had, during the lifetime of 

Edward, secured the consent of 
Harold to his succession, and 
claimed to have received that 
of Edward. He thus consid- 
ered Harold's election as a per- 
sonal defiance, and landed in 
England with an army of 60,000 
men. In the battle of Senlac, 
near Hastings, 1066, the Eng- 
lish army was routed, and Har- 
old was killed. 

Not without bloody resist- 
ance did William master the country subsequently, but the supe- 
riority of Norman discipline was too great for any permanent check 
to his plans. The resistance was sufficient, however, to excuse a 
general confiscation of the Anglo-Saxon landed property. The 
Saxons were reduced to the level of an inferior and disinherited 
race. At least 60,000 estates were parceled out for the foreigners, 
and the word "bond," which originally meant an Anglo-Saxon free 
farmer, gained the new sense indicated by the word bondage. 

Not-withstanding the suffering- and misery inflicted by the Norman conquest, 
England first gained by it the union of her hitherto rival and contending provinces, and the 
beginnings of all her later civilization. 

"William the Conqueror was a great organizer and legislator. He abolished the Eng- 
lish slave-trade, hitherto carried on at Bristol in great extent He abolished the death penalty, 
and protected the Jews. The " Star-Chamber" was so called from the " starrs," or bonds, of 




Castle of Robert •' the Devil," father of William 
the Conqueror, at Falaise, in Normandy. 



TWELFTH CENTURY. 363 

the Jews there deposited. The genius of William suppressed the insubordination of the nobles 
he had enriched, by the use of the old English local law. He thus supported the authority of 
the crown by courts of justice to which the barons were obliged to pay deference. The com- 
pleteness of system by which WilUam reorganized England is indicated by the still existing 
Domesday Book, a complete register of the landed estates. 

GENEALOGY OF THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET LINES IN THE IItH AND 12TH CENTURIES. 



William the Conqueror. 


bert. William Rufus. Henry I. 


Adela = Count of Blois. 




Stephen. 


Matdda. = 
1 


Geoffrey of Anjou. 


Henry 


II. 


Richard. 


John. 



TWELFTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 12th CENTURY. 

Henry I., son of the Conqueror a. d. 1100-1135 

Matilda, granddaughter of the Conqueror " 1135-1153 

Stephen, grandson of the Conqueror " 1135-1154 

Henry IL, son of Matilda " 1154-1189 

Richard L, son of the foregoing " 1189-1199 

Union of Normandy, Brittany, and England. — William 
the Conqueror had left the Duchy of Kormatidy, with Brittany and 
Maine, which he had also conquered, to his eldest son Eohert, and 
England to his second son WilUam Rufus. But after the death of 
Rufus, in 1100, the third son of William, Henry I., united Nor- 
mandy, Brittany and Maine under one goyernment with England. 

Edmund Ironsides, the valiant defender of the Saxons against the Danes, had left two 
sons, who made their escape to Hungary. One of these sons, Edgar Atheling, had been elected 
English king, after the death of Harold, by the Saxon opposition to William the Conqueror. 
The sister of Edgar Atheling married Malcolm, king of Scotland— the daughter of this marriage 
married Heniy I. ; thus the Saxon and Norman lines were united. 

Times of Stephen and Matilda.— The only son of Henry I. was drowned at sea. 
By the king's will, his daughter Matilda, was to succeed him. She had been married to 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of the Duke of Anjou. The succession of a daughter to the 
throne was not in accordance with Norman feudal ideas. (The law of primogeniture— 2. «., 
succession of the eldest son, was brought to England from Normandy.) The daughter of the 



364 



ENGLAND. 



Conqueror, Adela, had married the Count of Blois. Stephen, the son of this marriage, and 
grandson of the Conqueror, became a rival claimant for the English throne. The contentions 

of the parties of Matilda and Stephen 



filled England with disorder and blood- 
shed till 1153. In this year a compro- 
mise gave to Stephen the throne, and to 
Matilda's son Henry the succession. 
This fell to him with the death of Ste- 
phen, a year after, in 1154, 

The line of Plantagrenet (the 
name is derived from planta genista, 
the broom plant which GeoflFrey wore 
in his helmet), is also called the An- 
gevin (Anjevin), from the province of 
Anjou. The native French of Aujou 
were of different race from the Nor- 
mans, and on account of close neighbor- 
hood to Normandy, the more bitterly 
inimical. The feudal rivalries of 
French provinces in the early Middle 
Age were fully as pronounced as na- 
tional rivalries in our own day. The 
intermarriage with Anjou had been 
arianged by Henry I. to conciliate this 
hoi^tility, but the distinction between 
the Norman line ending with Henry I. 
and the Angevin line beginning with Henry II. is highly important. 




Norman Gateway «,t Bristol. 



The Line of Anjou acquires Acquitaine.— Before the acces- 
sion of Henry II., 1154-1189, he had married Eleanor of Poitou, 
heiress of Acquitaine, a word implying, at this time, the Southwest 
Provinces of France — Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergne, Perigord, the 
Limousin, the Angoumois, Guienne, and Gascony. Thus the Line 
of Anjou was a dynasty of French barons, ruling the larger part of 
France, whose dominions also included England. It is customary 
to speak of English possessions in France, but, till a century later, 
fact and feeling would have warranted the opposite phrase, of French 
possession in England. The Anjous were far more powerful than 
the French king. (See map for the age of the Crusades, p. 182, and 
compare p. 187.) 



The policy of Henry II. in England was not, however, anti-English. As a sov- 
ereign, he showed much political moderation, but this moderation was devoted to an impos- 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 365 

sible end, the combination of really unheterogeueous dominions. In his famous struggle with 
Thomas a Becket, he exhibited that error of a purely political conception of the Church often 
found in English and in other sovereigns. 

Thomas a Becket had served the king as soldier and Chancellor, but when appointed to the 
See of Canterbury he resisted Henry's efforts to control the appointments of bishops, and to 
bring the clergy under control of the secular courts. The irritation consequently engendered 
cost him his life. Four knights of Henry's train, seizing on an impatient word, perhaps in- 
tended to excite them to the act, murdered Becket in his own Cathedral. The affection in 
which the memory of the martyr was held by the people, the immense riches heaped on his 
shrine, its reputation througliout the Middle Age all over Europe, show that the cause which 
he died to protect was dear to the common people. 

Th.e reign of Richard I., 1189-1199, was more that of an adventurous French knight 
than of an English king. He was called Coeur de Lion (the lion-hearted). His adventures on 
the third Crusade belong to the details of the Crusades rather than to English history. He 
was succeeded by his brother John. For mention of Kichard I. see pp. 186, 195. 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 13th CENTURY. 

John, brotlier of the foregoing king a, D. (1199)- 1216 

Henry HI., son of the foregoing " 1216 - 1272 

Edward!, " " " " 1272 -(1307) 

John was wicked, bold, and enterprising. These traits were 
apparent in his treatment of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany 
(p. 190), who was legal heir to the throne as son of John's elder 
brother, Geoffrey. The cause of Arthur was supported by Philip II. 
of France, and this led to England's loss of all her French provinces 
but Gascony and Guienne. The French Normans had lost sym- 
pathy with their kindred, so long established in England, and they 
preferred the rule of tlie French king to the rule of the hated 
Anglo-French Angevins. The Channel Islands, Alderney, Jersey, 
and Guernsey, are still retained by England — a relic of the loss of 
Normandy under John. 

The Magna Charta, conceded by John to his Barons at Run- 
nymede in 1215, was wrung from unvvilhng hands. The English 
Constitution of modern times looks back to this charter as its 
foundation. The complaints of the Anglo-Norman Barons which 



366 



ENGLAND. 




the charter was granted to satisfy, had been especially caused by 
the favors, offices, and estates showered by the Line of Anjou 

on its own French kin. But 
Stephen Langton, Primate of 
Canterbury (appointee of Pope 
Innocent III.), chiefly instru- 
mental in the execution of the 
charter, took a national stand- 
point as a churchman above 
the discontents of tlie feudal 
party, and used its arm to 
assert the personal liberty of 
the subject in general. 

A copy of the charter still hangs 
in the British Museum, injured by age and 
fire, but with the royal seal still hanging 
from the brown shriveled parchment. "No 
freeman" (ran the memorable article which 
lies at the base of the whole English judi- 
cial system) '' shall be seized, or imprisoned, or dispossessed, or in any way brought to ruin ; 
we will not go against any man, nor send against him, save by legal judgment of his peers, or 
by the law of the land. To no man will we sell " (runs another article) " or deny or delay 
right or justice." 

John was succeeded by his sou Henry III., 1216-1272. Henry's mother had remained 
in Poitou and in place of Angevin favorites England w^as now overrun by Poitevin favorites. 
The king's marriage with Eleanor of Provence had also given rich offices to French Proven9als. 
Henry's disposition was easy, his tastes refined. The Abbey of Westminster dates from his 
reign. The same disposition to rule as a Frenchman over foreigners exhibited by John and 
Richard continued. 

Beg-inning-s of a House of Commons.— Therefore, as in the reign of John, the 
feudal insubordination of the Barons coincided with the national English interest. This 
baronial party was headed, but in the national sense, by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 
son of the Simon de Montfort of the Albigensian wars (p. 190). 

From his summons of a Parliament in 1264 is dated the germ of the House of Commons, two 
citizens being summoned from every borough. " It was the writ issued by Earl Simon which 
first summoned the merchant and the trader to sit beside the knight of the shire, the baron, 
and the bishop, in the Parliament of the realm." 

With Edward I., 1272-1307, the English sovereign first be- 
came a really national ruler. Parliamentary government was now 
so far established that statutes of this reign, if unrepealed, are still 



Magna Charta Island, near Kunnymede. 



THIRTEENTH CEKTUItY, 



36^ 



valid English law. The organization of justice and of government 
was generally amended. In addition to his activity as administra- 




Choir ot Westminster Abbey, London. 

tor and organizer, Edward I. accomplished the English conquest of 
Wales, which he ruled justly after conquest. His son, afterward 
Edward II., was the first who bore the title "Prince of Wales," 
since given the eldest son of English kings. 

VTars with Scotland.— The reign of Edward I. is also distin- 
guished by the wars with Scotland, continued in the time of his 
successor, Edward II., and finally leading in the reign of Edward 
III. to the wars With France, which lasted till the middle of the 
15th centurv. 



368 



ENGLAND 



SummaiT of Scotch history until the time of Edward I.— After the time when 
the barbaric Picts had, by their ravages, brought about the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain, 

the Irish colony of "Scots " (p. 317), 
first settled in Argyle, had gradually in- 
creased in territory and influence until, 
with Kenneth McAlpine, about 843 
A. D., the " Scottish " line of kings 
ruled the whole territory of North 
Britain as far as the borders of North- 
umbria. This territory was called, in 
consequence, "Scotland." The Anglo- 
Saxon kingdom of Northumbria in- 
cluded the Lowlands of modern Scot- 
land, reaching to Edinburgh and 
Glasgow. But in the 10th century the 
Lowlands were ceded by Dunstan, 
thus fixing the Tweed as the southern 
border of Scotland. As the Scotch (or 
Irish) kings now controlled a country 
settled by Anglo-Saxons, they assimi- 
lated with them, and relations of 
friendship were cultivated with the 
Anglo-Saxons of England, on account 
of the mutual hostility toward the 
Danes. 

After the Norman conquest of Eng- 
land, the daughter of the Scotch king, 
Malcolm, who had married the sister 
of the Anglo-Saxon Edgar Atheling (p. 363), was married to the Norman king, Henry L Friendly 
relations were consequently cultivated with the Anglo-Normans, many of whom gained estates 
in the Scotch Lowlands. Among these Normans were the families of Balliol and of Bruce. 

During a revolt of the barons against Henry II., the Scotch king William the Lion took 
part, and was made prisoner by the English king. To gain his freedom, William consented 
that the Scotch lords should pay direct allegiance to the English crown. This direct feudal 
dependence was remitted by Richard I. for a sum of money, but a theoretical over-lordsbip was 
still conceded to England. 

The Scotch Succession.— Edward I. attempted to replace the theoretic English over- 
lordship over Scotland by direct supremacy, under the following conditions : Alexander III, 
of Scotland, dying in 1290, left as only heir his grandchild, the daughter of a Norwegian king, 
hence called the " Maid of Norway." It had been arranged that she should marry the son of 
Edward L, but her death on the voyage to Scotland left the throne vacant. Of thirteen pre- 
tenders to the succession, the three most important referred their dispute to Edward I. Pend- 
ing its settlement, he occupied Scotland as its feudal over-lord. By the extinction of the line 
of William the Lion, the right of succession passed to the dattghters of his brother David. 
John Balliol rested his claim on descent from the first of these. Robert Bruce was descended 
from the second. 

Edward's decision in favor of Balliol was accepted by Scotland, but the English 




Salisbury Cathedral, 13th centuiy. 



FOURTEENTH CENTURr. 369 

king proceeded to require judicial dependence of the country on au English court of appeal. 
Foreign military service from the Scotch barons was also demanded. Balliol first consented, 
but Scottish sentiment forced him to retract his consent. A secret alliance with France em- 
boldened the Scotch to take an attitude of open defiance. Balliol refused to attend Edward's 
parliament and besieged the town of Carlisle. Edward's answer was the siege of Berwick and 
massacre of its citizens. " The massacre only ceased when a procession of priests bore the 
host to the king's presence, praying for mercy, and Edward, with a sudden and characteristic 
burst of tears, called off his troops." Edinburgh, Stirling, and Perth opened their gates. 
Bruce joined the English army, and Balliol himself surrendered and passed without a blow 
from his throne to an English prison. 

William. Wallace.— The disgraceful submission of their leaders brought the people them- 
selves to the front. " The genius of an outlaw knight, William Wallace, saw in their smoulder- 
ing discontent a hope of freedom for his country, and his daring raids on outlying parties of 
English soldiery roused the Lowlands into revolt. The instinct of the Scotch has guided them 
aright in choosing Wallace for their national hero. He \\ as the first to sweep aside the techni- 
calities of feudal law and to assert freedom as a national birthright." His victory near Stirling, 
in 1297, was followed by the defeat of Falkirk, in 1298. After some changes of fortune Edward 
succeeded, 1305, in reconquering the whole of Scotland. A general amnesty was extended to 
all who had shared in the revolt. The execution of Wallace was the one blot on Edward's 
clemency. 

FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 14th CENTURY. 

Edward I., son of the foreg-oiug king a. d. (1273)-1307 

Edward II., " " " " " " 1307-1337 

Edward III., " " " " '* " 1327-1377 

Richard II., grandson of the foregoing king " 1377-1399 

Robert Bruce.— " Edward was preparing for a joint parliament of the two countries at 
Carlisle, when the conquered country suddenly sprang again to arms under Robert Bruce, the 
grandson of one of the original claimants to the crown. The withdrawal of Balliol gave new 
force to his claims. The discovery of an intrigue which Bruce had set on foot so roused 
Edward's jealousy that Bruce fied for life across the border. In the church of the Grey Friars 
at Dumfries he met Comyn, the Lord of Badenoch, to whose treachery he attributed the dis- 
closure of his plans, and after the interchange of a few hot words struck him with his dagger 
to the ground. Bruce, for very safety, was obliged, six weeks after, to assume the crown in 
the Abbey of Scone." 

The new Scotch war thus begun was cripplod by the death of Edward I. in 1307, and 
under his son Edward II. the English lost their hold on Scotland. The battle of Bannockburn, 
1314, was the decisive victory of Bruce. "For centuries after, the rich plunder of the English 
camp left its traces on the treasure and vestment rolls of castle and abbey." 

Edward II., 1307-1327, lacked the force of his father, and his reign is filled with the suc- 
cessful resistance of the barons to the rule of his ministers and favorites. 

Under Edward III. troubles with France caused the final abandonment of Scotland, 
in 1339. 



B^O ENGLAND. 

Reign of Edward III., 1327-1377.— The loss of Kormandy, 
of Brittany and other provinces under John, had left the English 
kings still masters of part of the inheritance of Eleanor of Acqui- 
taine; of Guienne, Gascony, and the Limousin (p. 195). Eor 
these provinces the English kings owed feudal homage to the 
French sovereigns. The tendency of the French kings to absorb 
the feudal provinces under royal government thus made them heredi- 
tary foes of England. 

The Anglo-French Wars. — The outbreak of the war with 
France under Edward III., in 1339, was really caused by this French 
jealousy, which led France to take advantage of the Scotch wars for 
acts of open or concealed hostility. Philip IV. had seized Guienne 
during the war of Edw^ard I. in Scotland. Edward III. now laid 
claim to the French throne, but his claim was simply a form of de- 
claring war. 

Claim of Edward III. to the French Throne.— Edward III. was grandson of Philip 
IV. by his mother, and as a meas^ure of war claimed the French throne against Philip VI. (king 
since 1327), grandson of Philip III. Philip VI. was farther removed, but on account of being 
in the direct male line, he was the legal French heir. (Genealogy, p. 196.) 

Treaty of Bretigny. — Soon after the brilliant English victory 
of Crecy, in 1346, Calais was also taken, and four years after the 
English victory of Poitiers, in 1356, the treaty of Bretigny was con- 
cluded. By this treaty the English claim to Normandy and Brit- 
tany, and to the French throne, was abandoned, 1360. But the 
possessions of Southwestern France, generally comprised under the 
title of Guienne, were given to the English, not as feudal fiefs, which 
the}' had been hitherto, but as absolute possessions (map, p. 200). 

Notwithstanding this treaty, under Charles V. the Wise, 
successor of the French king John wdio had been made prisoner at 
Poitiers, the French national spirit renewed the war. The English 
were practically cleared from France for the time being. Calais, 
Bordeaux, and Bayonne alone were still held. The Black Prince, 
the English hero of the wars with France, died before his father. 

Richard II., 1377-1399, son of the Black Prince, came to the 



POURTEEKTH CENTURY. 371 

throne just at the moment when public dissatisfaction with the 
disasters abroad was aggravated by taxes laid to prosecute the war. 
Thus was occasioned the popular rising under Wat Tyler, 1381. 
The serfs and peasants who supported this revolt had no hostility to 
the king personally, and by his bold and shrewd management the 
insurrection was suppressed. But " the brilliant abilities which 
Richard II. shared with the rest of the Plantagenets were marred by 
fitful inconstancy and a mean spirit of revenge." Henry of Lan- 
caster, the eldest son of the late king's brother (John of Gaunt, 
Duke of Lancaster), had been by this temper unjustly driven into 
banishment. For the expense of a campaign in Ireland (p. 329) his 
inhentance was confiscated at the death of his father. 

Henry of Lancaster, taking advantage of Richard's absence in 
Ireland, landed in Yorkshire witl] a small band. This rapidly 
increased, so that when the king returned to England his cause was 
already lost. The personal resentment of Henry of Lancaster was 
supported by the general discontent of the nation, especially excited 
by Richard's peace policy toward France. The king was deposed in 
1399, dying, probably by violence, in the next year. 

Civilization.—" Gradually the higher classes became more refined. The use of spices in 
cookery gave nevv relish to their food ; glass windows, earthen vessels, coal fires, and candle- 
light added to the comfort of their homes ; but furniture was still scanty. The use of tiles 
instead of thatch improved their dwellings. The leading merchants dealt in wool. Even the 
kings did not disdain this trade. The value of money is shown by wages. Haymakers got a 
penny a day; carpenters, twopence ; and masons, threepence. The courtiers wore a coat half 
blue, half white, with deep sleeves; trousers reaching to the knee, stockings of different 
colors, and shoes with toes so long that they were fastened by golden chains to the girdle. A 
close hood of silk, embroidered with strange figures of animals, enclosed the head. The ladies 
wore a towering head-dress like a mitre, some two feet high, from which floated a whole rain- 
bow of gay ribbons. Their trains were long ; their tunics of many colors. They wore two 
daggers in a golden belt, and rode to the tournament and the forest on steeds of fiery spirit. 
The tournament was still the first of sports ; but there were also tilting at the ring, when 
knights strove at full horse-speed to carry off on the point of a leveled lance a suspended ring, 
and tilting at a wooden figure, which, swinging on a pivot, bore with outstretched arm a wooden 
sword. He who struck fairly in the centre was untouched ; but if the lance struck too much 
on one side, the awkward tilter caught a sound blow from the wooden sword as he rode past 
the whirling image (p. 180). The great pastime of the lower classes was archery. 



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FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 373 

FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 15th CENTURY. 

Henry IV. of Lancaster a. d. 1399-1413 

Henry V., son of the foregoing " 1413-1432 

Henry VL, " " " 1422-1471 

Edward IV., of York " 1471-1483 

Edward V., son of the foregoing " 1483 

Richard III., uncle " " " 1483-1485 

Henry VII. (Tudor Line) " 1485-(1509) 

Henry IV. had been made king by the party in favor of war 
with France, but various revolts during his reign, especially that of 
the Percies (the Earl of Northumberlaud and his son Henry Hot- 
spur), and of Wales under Owen Glendower, kept him busy at 
home. 

Henry V. took up the war which was needed to support the 
popularity of the House of Lancaster. France was divided by the 
internal party quarrels of Orleanists and Burgundians (p. 201). 
The French king, Charles VL, was insane. The surrender of Acqui- 
taine was offered, but Henry was bent on the reconquest of Nor- 
mandy. The English victory of Azincourt, 1415, was no less brilliant 
than those of Crecy and Poitiers. The Enghsh had already con- 
quered Normandy when the assassination of the Duke of Burgundy 
on the bridge of Montereau (p. 203), in the presence of the Dauphin 
(whom he had met there under flag of truce) threw the Burgun- 
dian party into an English alliance. Having possession of the mad 
king, the Burgundians married his daughter Catherine to Henry V., 
declaring him French regent and next in succession. (Treaty of 
Troyes, 1420.) 

Henry VL, 1422-1471, but nine years old when his father 
died, was the heir of these pretensions, and was afterwards actually 
crow^ned king of France at Paris. In this closing period of the 
Anglo-French w^ars, when the fortunes of France appeared at low- 
est ebb, the heroism of Joan of Arc and the new national spirit of 



374 ENGLAND. 

the French freed their country by degrees of the invader, at whose 
mercy it had appeared to be. In 1454 Guienne was finally and 
entirely lost by the English. Calais was the only remnant of their 
possessions in France. 

Rivalries of York and Lancaster.— The unsuccessful conduct of the foreign war 
created a discontent at home which found an outbrealc in the Kentish rebellion, headed by 
John Cade, 1450. Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, whose maladministration had caused this 
rebellion, resumed his place at the head of the royal council after its force was spent. In the 
childlessness of the king this Duke, son of an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, appeared to be 
aiming at the crown, although excluded from succession by the act of Parliament which recog- 
nized the House of Lancaster. His ambition was favored by the fact that the regencies owing to 
the minority of Henry VI. were now x-eplaced by regencies owing to incapacities by sickness. 

The Duke of York opposed the ambition of Somerset. He was son of Anne Mortimer 
and Richard, Earl of Cambridge, and claimed to be heir presumptive by descent from Edmund 
of Langley, fourth son of Edward III. (p. 372). He was made Protector during a malady of the 
king by Parliament, The recovery of the king caused the restoration of Somerset. A struggle 
ensued between the two Dukes. The Duke of Somerset (Edmund Beaufort) was slain at St. 
Albans, 1455. The title passed to his brother (John BeaufortV 

Wars of the Roses.— Meantime, to Henry VI. had been born 
a son. Hence a new claim of the Duke of York, as the son of 
Anne Mortimer and descendant of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, second 
son of Edward HI., to be the legitimate king instead of Henry VI. 
(While York had expected to succeed the king, this claim to sup- 
plant him had been held in reserve.) The white rose was the badge 
of York, the red rose the badge of Lancaster. The contests of York 
and Lancaster are therefore known as the "Wars of the Eoses." 
Their general result was the self-destruction of the feudal baronage 
of England. They lasted thirty years, from 1455 to 1485. 

With Edward IV., son of the Duke of York, who finally sup- 
planted Henry VI. in 1471, thus began, by this self-destruction of 
the barons, the period of royal absolutism in England. Eichard III., 
1483-1485, the brother of Edward IV., usurped the crown at his 
death, but held it only for two years. His rule was statesmanhke, 
but the murder of his nephews (Edward V. and his brother) in the 
Tower of London deprived him of national sympathy. Slain in the 
battle of Bosworth Field, 1485, he gave place to a sovereign who 
united the claims of York and Lancaster. 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY 



375 



Henry VII., 1485-1509, grandson of John Beaufort, Duke of 
Somerset, was the only surviving Lancasterian, i. e., descendant of 
John of Gaunt (p. 372). He 
married Elizabeth, daughter 
of Edward lY., thus setthng 
all difficulties of succession. 
The use of artillery gave him 

complete ascendency over feu- "^^^mi^h i^iKliyik I-,;/ 

dal insubordination. 




Knights of the 15th Ceutiii y. Design of the period. 



William Caxton.— In the reign of 
Edward IV. William Caxton introduced 
the printing press into England, 1476. 
Caxton's own accounts show us the un- 
certainties still existing in his time in 
the use of English. 

" Common English that is spoken in 
one shire varyieth from another so much, 

that in my days it happened that certain merchants were in a ship in Thames, for to have sailed 
over the sea to Zealand and for lack of wind they tarried at Foreland and went on shore for to 
refresh them. And one of them, named Sheffield, a mercer, came into a house and asked for 

meat and especially he asked for eggs. And the 
good wife answered that she could speak no French. 
And the merchant was angry, for he also could speak 
no French, but would have had eggs, but she under- 
stood him not. And then at last another said he 
would have eyren, then the good wife said she un- 
derstood him well. Lo, what should a man in these 
days now write, eggs or eyren ? " 

The testimony of langnag-e proves that the 
whole period from the Norman Conquest to Henry 
Vn. (1066-1485) was required to unite the Norman- 
French and Anglo-Saxons in the nation of modem 
English. Before William the Conqueror English 
was Anglo-Saxon, that is a dialect of German ap- 
proaching the Dutch. After the conquest French 
was long the. only language of polite society and 
literature. Henry n. and Richard I. did not know 
English. The amalgamation of the two tongues was 
fairly advanced in the time of Chaucer's Canterbury 
Tales (14th century), but all public documents were in French till the time of Henry \TI. (They 
were in Latin from William the Conqueror to Henry HI.) 

The birth of Eng-lish literature, as regards its matter, was in the districts bordering 
on Wales. Geoffrey of Monmouth (time of Henry I.) gave to England the stories of King 




Ladies' Head-dress ; 15th Century. 

{Elizabeth WooclviUe, wife of 

Edward IV.) 



376 



ENGLAND 



Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, fables which had been carried to Brittany by 
fugitive British, and were then returned to Wales (p. 307). 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 16th CENTURY. 



Heniy VII. (Tudor Line) 

Heurj VIII., son of the foregoing 
Edward VL, " " " 
Mary, sister " " '< 

Elizabeth, sister " " " 



A. D. 1485-1509 
. " 1509-1547 
. " 1547-1553 
. " 1553-1558 
" 1558-1603 



Henry VIIL, 1509-1547, was the second king of the Tudor 
line. This line is so called from Owen Tudor, a Welsh knight, 

who married the French widow 
of Henry VI. and was paternal 
grandfather of Henry YII. 

Period of Charles V.— In the active 
development of the 16th century maritime 
discovery, assisted by the mariner's com- 
pass, was enlarging the conception of the 
world. Italian cultivation was spreading 
over Northern Europe. The art of print- 
ing was widening the field of knowledge. 
Modern State governments were replacing 
the disorderly violence of feudal institu- 
tions. England, under these influences, 
played her part in the wars and diplomatic 
controversies of the period of Charles V, 
and Francis I. Her alliance was alternately 
sought in the quarrels of these princes, and 
her importance increased from this position 
of third party and make-weight in Conti- 
nental affairs. The celebrated tournament 
of the Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520, on 
occasion of an alliance between Henry VIH. 
and Francis I., indicates the general luxury 
and extravagant display of the time and its 
new sources of wealth. 
The contemporary Lutheran schism now exerted an unhappy inflneuce over England. 
Henry VIII. had written a book against Luther, for which Pope Leo X. gave him the title of 
" Defender of the Faith," nor did he in the matter of Church doctrine appear later a8 the par- 




Kmg'b Colleg 



1479-1515. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 377 

tisan of novelty. His temper, however, was stubborn, and he did not distinguish his position 
as an almost absolute ruler of England— a position to which here as elsewhere the auti-feudal 
and popular tendencies were favorable— from a position of spiritual insubordination to the 
Head of the Church. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, was a daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella of Spain. She was first married to Henry's elder brother Arthur, who soon after died. 

The Act of Supremacy. — A Papal dispensation had allowed 
Henry to marry bis brother's wife. The absence of male beirs is 
said to have created conscientious scruples in the king's mind as to 
the vaUdity of such a marriage, notwithstanding the dispensation. 
Tbe king, however, with some inconsistency, did not doubt that a 
divorce under Papal dispensation would be vaUd. This he could 
not obtain. A passion for Anne Boleyn, one of the ladies of his 
court, thus led Henry VIII. to separate his kingdom from its re- 
ligious subordination to the Roman Pontiff. The Act of Supremacy, 
1534, made the English sovereign head of the EngUsh Church. 
Henry did not hesitate to execute the death penalty on those who 
refused to swear allegiance under the new forms— for instance, on 
Sir Thomas More, his former minister, "in the general opinion of 
Europe the foremost Englishman of his time." 

The separation of England from the Eoman Church was prompted by the 
royal anxiety for a divorce, and had nothing to do with even the pretense of a " reformation," 
but it opened the doors for the overthrow in England of the forms and of the faith of the 
Church. For the time being, however, the death penalty was inflicted equally on those who 
denied Transubstantiation and on those who denied the king's supremacy. 

During the ascendency of Henry's minister, Thomas Cromwell, who suc- 
ceeded Cardinal Wolsey (his first great minister), the suppression of monasteries and destruc- 
tion of shrines was carried on with ruthless hand, as a means of filling the treasury of a king 
who still inflicted the death penalty for denial of the Eeal Presence. It even happened that a 
'"Sacramentary " (denier of Transubstantiation) was burned with the wood of a statue from 
a shrine. 

Throughout the reign of Henry "VIII. the Mass was retained, although a year 
before his death the substitution of an English Communion Service had been proposed. 

After the execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of infi- 
delity, Henry had married Jane Seymour, who died after the birth 
of a son. He then married, successively, Anne of Cleves, from 
whom he was divorced; Catherine Howard, who was beheaded for 
infidelity, and Catherine Parr, who outhved him. By these three 



378 ENGLAND. 

later wives he had no children. His daughter Mary was the child 
of Catherine of Aragon ; his daughter Elizabeth was the child of 
Anne Boleyn. 

Edward VI., 1547-1553, was a youth without genius or de- 
cided character, who died before any influence in the government 
was allowed him. England was governed by his uncle and guardian, 
the brother of Jane Seymour. The ''- Protector " owed his title of 
Duke of Somerset and his power to this relationship. From his 
rule dates the institution of the Protestant forms of worship in 
England. 

The Eng-lish Reformation.— The position of the Protector was without the stability 
of royal hereditary right, and required a party support. "The hope of support from the 
Protestants united with Somerset's personal predilections, in his patronage of the innovations 
[in religion] against which Henry had battled to the last. Priests were permitted to marry ; 
the new Communion, which had taken the place of the Mass, was ordered to be admmistered 
in both kinds; an English Book of Common Prayer, the Liturgy, which with slight alterations 
is still used in the Church of England, replaced the Missal and Breviary, from which its con- 
tents are mainly drawn, 1548.* The power of preaching was restricted, by the use of licences, 
to the friends of the Primate, Cranmer. While all counter arguments were rigidly suppressed, 
a crowd of Protestant pamphleteers flooded the country with vehement invectives against the 
Mass and its ' superstitious ' accompaniments. The assent of the nobles about the court was 
won by the suppression of chantries and religious guilds, and by glutting their greed with the 
last spoils of the Church. German and Italian mercenaries were introduced to stamp out the 
wider popular discontent which broke out in the East, in the West, and in the Midland Coun- 
ties. The Cornishmeu refused to accept the new service, ' because it is like a Christmas Game.' 
Kevolt was everywhere stamped out in blood ; but the weakness which the Protector had shown 
in presence of the danger, and the irritation caused by the sanction he had given to the agra- 
rian demands of the insurgents, ended in his fall. He was forced by his own party to resign, 
and his power passed to the Earl of Warwick, to whose ruthless severity the suppression of 
the revolt was mainly due. The change of governors, however, brought about no change of 
system. The rule of the upstart nobles who formed the Council of Eegency became simply a 
rule of terror. All that men saw was religious and political chaos, in which ecclesiastical 
order had perished, and in which politics was dying down into the squabbles of a knot of 
nobles over the spoils of the Church and the Crown. But while the courtiers gorged them- 
selves with manors, the treasury grew poorer. The coinage was debased. Crown lands to the 
value of five millions of money \i. e., twenty-five millions of dollars] had been granted away 
to the friends of Somerset and Warwick. The royal expenditure had mounted, in seventeen 
years, to more than four times its previous tota,V—(Gree-n's " Shoi^t History of the English 
People.'"' The extracts are condensed from pages 364, 36.5, 366, 367.) 



* "The most beautiful portions of the English Prayer Book are translations from the 
Roman BvQ\\fiTj.'"— Fronde's History of England. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 379 

In the reign of Mary, 1553-1558, the Catholic worship was 
restored by almost unanimous vote of the Parliament, and the author- 
ity of the Pope over the English Church was re-estabhshed. But 
the marriage of Mary with Philip 11. of Spain roused the national 
English jealousy of foreign interference and damaged her personal 
popularity. Her reputation with later times has been much injured 
by her persecution of the Protestants. Among many others who 
suffered death by this persecution, was Archbishop Cranmer, who 
had himself, during the reign of Edward Yl., inflicted death by fire 
on those Avho denied the divinity of Christ. 

Calais, the last English possession in France, was lost at the 
close of this reign, 1558 (p. 266). 

Lady Jane Grey.— At the opening of Mary's reign the Protestant party had attempted 
to revise the provisions of the will of Henry VIII. regulating the succession. Lady Jane Grey, 
grand-daughter of a sister of Henry VIII., had been proposed in her stead. The ambition of 
the Protector, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland (who succeeded Somerset in 
1549), had procured the marriage of Lady Jane Grey with one of his sous, Guildford Dudley, 
and the signing by Edward VI. of a will in her favor. Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen 
by Northumberland's influence, but the temper of the people rebelled against this usurpation, 
Northumberland was obliged by public sentiment to abandon the cause of his daughter-in- 
law, and she was confined in the Tower. 

A second rising, headed by Lady Jane Grey's father, on announcement of Mary's proposed 
marriage with Philip II., caused the execution of the unfortunate lady, and of the lords whose 
ambition had placed her in a false position. Her learning and goodness, and her own inno- 
cence of ambitions designs, have excited much sympathy for her unhappy fate. 

Elizabeth, 1558-1603.— According to the will of Henry VIII., 
Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth were all made heirs to the throne, 
and the latter succeeded her sister without opposition. She had 
been educated in the Protestant faith, and soon after her accession 
the Protestant party was again brought into power, and the Prot- 
estant w^orship was re-established. 

Elizabeth refused the title of Head of the Church, opposed the marriage of 
clergy, and favored many usages of Catholic worship which were obnoxious to the Protest- 
ants, such as altars, candles, crosses, and images, but her character w^as worldly, her predilec- 
tion for Catholic forms a matter of sentiment rather than of religious feeling, and it was her 
policy not to disafiect the powerful English Catholic party. 



880 



ENGLAND. 




The acknowledged legitimate successor of Elizabeth 
was Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, grand-daughter of Heury Eighth's 
sister Margaret (p. 372). The English Catholic party, in expecta- 
tion of Mary's succession, viewed with less repugnance the govern- 
ment of Elizabeth. 

Mary Queen of Scots was brought up in France ; her first 
husband was Francis II., who died in 
1560 (p. 266). She then returned to 
Scotland and married her cousin. Lord 
Darnley. The marriage, made for 
state reasons, was an unhappy one. 
Darnley murdered Eizzio, her Italian 
State Secretary, in Mary's own presence. 
The mysterious assassination of Lord 
Darnley, and Marj^'s sudden (perhaps 
compulsory) marriage with his pre- 
sumed murderer, the Earl of Bothwell, 
were followed by her imprisonment in 
Lochleven Castle, 1567. Thence she 
fled, in 1568, to England, and placed herself in the hands of Eliza- 
beth for safety. 

For eighteen years she was kept in captivity. Being not only 
legal heir, as all conceded, but also, in view of Elizabeth's illegiti- 
macy, the legally existing queen in Catholic estimation, there was 
every probability that her party would at once place her on the 
English throne, if she were allowed her freedom. If, on the other 
hand, Mary's life were sacrificed, there would no longer be a Cath- 
olic successor in prospect, and an immediate revolt of the Catholic 
party against Elizabeth was then to be expected. Hence her long 
captivity. But this captivity w^as a constant invitation to plots and 
revolts against the government, and to this state of things she 
finally became a victim. 

The execution of the Queen of Scots in 1587 for alleged 
complicity in the " Babington " conspiracy was the signal for all 
the disturbances of Ehzabeth's later reign. 



Mary Queen of Scots. 
{From a po7irait of the time.) 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



381 



The sentence reached Fotheringay on the 7th of February. Mary listened, as it was read 
to her, with an unmoved countenance. "My lords," she said, "the day has arrived at last 
long expected by me, and long desired ; for what better end can I look for than to give up my 
life for my faith ? Nevertheless, as to the death of the Queen, your sovereign," she continued, 
placing her hand, as she spoke, on a Testament that lay on the table, " listen to my last words. 
I call God to witness, I never sought it, T never imagined it." 

The Spanish Armada. — The rage of Elizabeth at the agents 
who liacl obtained from her the death-warrant against Mary has been 
generally view^ed as hypoc- 
risy, or as a feminine and 
momentary remorse. It is 
more likely that her polit- 
ical foresight as to the 
consequent peril for her- 
self is the explanation. 
For it was not till 1588 
that Philip II. despatched ^f^^v 
his famous Armada ; al- ^ 

though English privateers 
had harassed Spanish com- 
merce and made war on 
the Spanish colonies for 
over twenty years, with 
Elizabeth's connivance, 
and without any sort of apology or reparation. ''' The Armada was 
destroyed by the superior sailing qualities of the smaller, more easily 
handled English vessels, and by the elements. 

The Irish Revolt. — But no sooner was the danger passed than 
the revolt of the Irish Catholics absorbed the energies of Elizabeth 
(p. 332). Eor the rest of her reign three-fourths of the English 
annual income had to be devoted to the Irish war. 




w- 



English Man-of-War ; 16th Century. 
{F)om a draiving by Holbein.) 



Elizabeth's last years were miserable and friendless. She had refrained from mar- 
riage lest the birth of a Protestant heir should endanger her own hold on the throne by rousing 
the Catholic party to her overthrow. 



* Detailed accounts of these piracies in Fronde's " History of England." 




382 ENGLAND. 

The Elizabethan period of English Literature boasts the naraes of Mar- 
lowe, Ben Jon son, Spenser, and Shakespeare. 

The dramas of Marlowe are distinguished 
by rugged force and vh-ile power. 

Ben Jonson exhibits in his dramas the influ- 
ence of the Latinity of Italian classic learning. 

Spenser's Faerie-Q,ueen shows the poetic 
word-capacities of English speech in most wonder- 
ful flexibility and rhythm. 

Shakespeare combines all these qualities with 
his own matchless human comprehension of human 
grandeur and human weakness. 

Lord Francis Bacon began his career in the 
Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. ^.^^^ ^^ Elizabeth, but belongs more especially to 

(From an old engraving.) ^ , , . .„ 

the time of James I., when scientific pedantry was 

beginning to replace poetic inspiration. The contributions of this learned man to philosophy 
are more highly rated by his countrymen than by the critics of continental Europe. 

Civilization.—" Brick and stone were beginning to be used in the houses of the great, 
and glass windows became common. The poor lived in hovels made of wattles plastered over 
with clay. The fire was in the middle of the floor, and the smoke escaped through a hole in 
the roof. This was the case in all houses until the reign of Henry VII., when chimneys began 
to be built. The floors were commonly of clay strewed with rushes. In early Tudor reigns a 
straw pallet, a coarse sheet and rug, and a log of wood for a bolster, were commonly used. 
The man who lay on a pillow of chaff was thought luxurious. Servants lay on bare straw. 
Before Elizabeth dishes and spoons were wooden ; then pewter platters and silver or tin spoons 
came into use among farmers and those of the same class. About 15S0 coaches were intro- 
duced: before that time ladies rode on a pillion behind their chief servants, whom they held 
by the belt. 

" Hops were now first grown in England. Cabbages, cherries, gooseberries, plums, apricots, 
and grapes might now be seen in English gardens. Potatoes were brought by Sir Francis 
Drake from Sante Fe in America. They were introduced into Ireland by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
Raleigh also brought tobacco from the West Indian island Tobago, and taught the English 
its use. 

" The country folk wore a doublet of rnsset-brown leather. The court fashions were, like 
those of our own day, always changing. Queen Catherine Howard introduced pins from 
France : and, as these were expensive at first, a separate sum for this luxury was granted to 
the ladies by their husbands. Hence the expression 'pin-money.' The farthingale was 
introduced from Spain in Mary's reign. It was a large hooped petticoat. Ruffs of plaited 
linen were w^orn by both sexes on the neck and wrists. 

" During this period the ladies often joined in the chase and shot at the game with arrows. 
Hawking was beginning to decline, for the gun was coming into use. Bear-baiting and bull- 
baiting were sports of the highest in the land. The principal country sports were archery, 
foot-races, and various games of ball. 

" Christmas was the great season of sports. From the sovereign to the beggar, all England 
then went a-mumming in strange dresses and masks May-day was another festive season in 
Old England. Green branches were pulled immediately after midnight, a lord and lady of May 
were chosen, and dances were kept up around a May-pole crowned with flowers." 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 383 



IMPORTANT DATES OF ENGLISH HISTORY, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

Act of Supremacy a. d. 1534 

Demolition of Shrines " 1539 

Mass abolislied " 1548 

Shakespeare born " 1564 

Mary Queen of Scots executed " 1587 

Spanish Armada " 1588 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 17th CENTURY. 

James I., son of Mary Stuart a. D. 1603-1625 

Charles I., son of the foregoing " 1625-1649 

Commonwealth (01iv«r Cromwell, fl658) " 1649-1660 

Charles II., son of foregoing king " 1660-1685 

James II., brother of " " " 1685-1688 

j William III. of Orange, grandson of Charles I.. . '• 1688-1702 

I And Mary, daughter of James II " 1688-1694 



James I. of England (and VI. of Scotland), the son of Mary 
Queen of Scots and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, was the first of the 
Stuart line in England. The Presbyterian Calvinists, led by John 
Knox, ruled the Lowlands of Scotland after Mary's flight to Eng- 
land. James had thus been brought up in the Protestant faith. His 
accession marks an important point in history — the union of the 
Scotch and English Cro-wns. The parliaments of the two na- 
tions were not united till a century later. 

James was a pedant, but a man of learning. His person and 
manners were not engaging, but he was not lacking in shrewdness. 
It was said of him that he was the wisest fool in Europe. 

Aside from the Gunpowder Plot discovered in 1605, a conspiracy 
in which misguided Catholics were inyolved and which aimed at 
the overthrow of the government by blowing up the Houses of 
Parliament, the two great features of James's reign are the Ameri- 



384 



ENGLAND, 



can Settlements and the development of a ^^High-Church " and a 
'' Puritan " party. 

English colonies in America.— After the discoveries of the American continent, it 
was the Spaniards who, through the 16th century, colonized America. Their energies were 
devoted to the islands of the West Indies, to Mexico and Peru. On the North American con- 
tinent only Florida had been colonized by them. 

On the other hand, at the opening of the nth century France and England, whose fishing 
vessels had for some time visited the coasts of Newfoundland, began to make settlements in 
America. 

Captain John Smith made the beginnings of a colony in Virginia in 1606. A little earlier, 
1603, the French began to establish settlements in Canada, and a little later, 1620, the English 
began to settle Massachusetts, Ehode Island, and Connecticut. 

The first English colony sailed from Holland, a band of Brownists (Congregationalists or 
Independents, founded by Brown, reign of Elizabeth), who had settled there for free worship. 
But ttie rapid rise and increase in number of this Plymouth Colony resulted from the persecu- 
tions of the English Puritans under the son and successor of James. 



Charles I., 1625-1649, inherited from his father the division 

in the Enghsh Church, and the 
theory of the " divine right of 
kings." This theory was neces- 
sary to bolster up the institution 
of apolitical Church supremacy. 
No sooner had the English 
Church come into existence than 
sectarian divisions began to dis- 
turb it. The Puritans, earnest 
but often uncultivated people, 
often, but not always, from the 
lower orders of society, were 
offended by the hollowness of 
the forms which the English 
High Church made obligatory. 
The Catholics were perse- 
cuted, but Puritans were forced 
to submit to external forms 
borrowed from the Catholic. The famous Archbishop Laud modeled 




Costume of the 17th century. Henrietta Maria, 
wife of Charles I. (P. 2?2.) 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 385 

the English Church on a basis closely resembling the modern 
Ritualistic Episcopal ceremonial. 

Charles I. met his first decided repulse in his attempt 
to extend this Church system over Scotland. The Scotch Presby- 
terians refused to use the English Prayer Book, and rose in arms. 
To subdue them the king needed armies and money. To procure 
this money he resorted to methods of taxation, by " ship-money," 
which were unusual and calculated to arouse popular discontent. 

Ship-money was a tax originally levied in the maritime coun- 
ties for coast defense, and extended by Charles to all England. The 
House of Commons, of Puritan, tendencies, seized on the question of 
money supplies as a means of crippling the king in his religious 
policy. This parhamentary opposition was strengthened, supported 
and magnified by the Scotch revolt. 

The Bill of Rights, 1628. — Thus was forced from the king 
his consent to the famous Bill of Rights, by which no money sup- 
plies could be raised without parliamentary consent, the most im- 
portant feature of the modern English Constitution. From this 
moment until his death, Charles I. never abandoned his attempts to 
reverse this arrangement, and to rule 
without parliamentary advice and sup- 
plies. 

Cavaliers and Roundheads. — 
Hence his wars, supported by the 
'•' Cavaliers," the party of the court 
aristocracy, against the Parliament and 
Puritan party of the "Roundheads" (so- 
called from their cropped hair — the 
Cavaliers wore the hair long). These coin, with Head of cromweii. 
wars, between 1642 and 1649, owed their 

successful issue for the Puritan party to the mihtary genius of Oliver 
Cromwell, and to the alliance of Scotland. 

The Execution of Charles I. in 1649 was the result of a long 
course of diplomatic duplicity and double dealing on his part, which 




386 



ENGLAND 



convinced the Puritan leaders that as long as the king was alive he 
would never abandon intrigue. 



It need not weaken our sympathy for the fate of the king to understand that his violent 
death was the result of a determined conflict between two irreconcilable methods of govern- 
ment, the Parliamentary and the Absolute form, of which the former was most suited to the 
genius of the English 

The Commonwealth. — Between 1649 and 1660 the govern- 
ment of England was in form a Comnionwealth, i. e., a Parlia- 
mentary Republic, but in substance it was a despotism under Oliver 

Cromwell (till 1658), sup- 
ported by a strong division 
of public sentiment. The 
despotic rule of Cromwell 
produced, however, a new 
revolution of public senti- 
ment after his death, and a 
restoration of the Stuarts 
in 1660. 

The Restoration of 
Charles II., 1660-1685. 
— Experience proved that 
parliamentary government 
could not exist in England 
without a king. Hence the 
compromise, tacitly made, 
by which the Restoration was procured, and the son of Charles I. 
was made king. From the Stuart Restoration dates the existence 
of the English '' Dissenters." Tiie Puritan clergymen were turned 
out of their livings to the number of two thousand, about a fifth of 
the Enghsh clergy. The king's own temper was tolerant, but he 
was controlled by the Parhament in matters of religion. A Test 
Act was passed, requiring adhesion to the Church of England as 
condition of holding civil or militarv office. 




New St. PauFs, London. Begun 1675. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 387 

The cliaracter of the king was frivolous, and yet he was not lacking in sense. A 
courtier suggested as an epitaph the following : 

Here lies our sovereign lord the king, 
Whose word no man relies on ; 
Who never said a foolish thing, 
And never did a wise one. 

'• It is true," said Charles, " my deeds are my ministers', my words are my own." 



Charles II. never defied his Parliament, although his own 
tastes and policy were generally in opposition to its tendencies. His 
alUances with Louis XIV. and French sympathies have made him 
generally odious to English historians. Charles died in the Catholic 
faith, although he never openly had professed it. 

James II., 1685-1688, who succeeded his brother, had publicly 
embraced Catholicism when Duke of York. He was a man of 
upright but cold and unsympathetic nature. His absolutist tenden- 
cies, hateful to the nation in general, and exerted without reflection 
or policy in the Catholic interest, provoked a revolution by which 
the Stadt-holder of Holland, William Prince of Orange, obtained 
the throne of England for himself and his wife Mary, the king's 
daughter. James attempted to regain his throne with Irish assist- 
ance, but was defeated in the Battle of the Boyne, 1690. 

The Revolution of 1688 was the turning point in the forma- 
tion of the modern English Constitution. By it the '• Habeas 
Corpus" Act, passed in 1679, and violated by James (the act which 
led to his downfall), became a recognized feature of the Constitu- 
tion. This act forbids the imprisonment of an English subject 
without process of law. But the most important change was that 
by which the income of the king and the pay of the standing army 
were made dependent on the annual vote of the Parliament. An- 
nual parliaments were thus made necessary, and the king became 
dependent on them. This arrangement soon led, in following reigns, 
to another,— government by a Ministry, which carries out the 
measures of the majority of the House of Commons, and which 
changes with the change of this majority. Thus the stability 



388 ENGLAND. 

of monarchy was united with the mobility of popular govern- 
ment. 

Science and Literature.— In the reign of Charles II. the Ptudies in Science and Natural 
History, which Bacon's Philosophy favored, made great progress. The name of Sir Isaac 
Newton, 1642-1727, represents the discovery of the law of gravitation. 

In this reign appeared the " Paradise Liost" of John Milton, the poet of Puritan 
England. His poem is the work of a noble and high-minded man, whose learning and mastery 
of poetic form were remarkable. Milton's English is especially pure and vigorous. A later 
poetic contemporary of Milton, living over into the 18th century and the reign of Anne, 
was John Dryden. 

American Colonies.— Throughout the whole ITth century, following the settlement of 
Massachusetts in 1620, the English continued to gain ground in America. New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, Maryland, Rhode Island, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina 
and Pennsylvania, were all settled in the 17th century. 

Conquest of Jamaica. — During the time of the Commonwealth, Jamaica was conquered 
from Spain. It is still an English possession. 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

Elizabeth died. James I. succeeds A. d. 1603 

French Settlements in Canada after this date " 1603 

Gunpowder Plot " 1605 

Captain John Smith in Virginia " 1606 

Henry IV. of France assassinated. Louis XIII. succeeds '' 1610 

Shakespeare died '• 1616 

Thirty Years' War began '^ 1618 

Puritans in Massachusetts ■' 1620 

Francis Bacon died. '■ 1626 

BillofRights '■ 1628 

Civil Wars between Charles I. and his Parliament after " 1642 

Peace of Westphalia " 1648 

Execution of Charles I. Cromwell in Ireland '' 1649 

Restoration of Charles II. Majority of Louis XIV ' 1660 

Great Fire of London " 1666 

Molieredied '• 1673 

Miltondied " 1674 

Habeas Corpus Act '' 1679 

Comeille died " 1684 

Charles II. died. James II. succeeds " 1685 

James II. replaced by William III " 1688 

Battle of the Boyne " 1690 

Racinedied " 1699 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 389 



IMPORTANT DATES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
Union of Scotch and English Crowns ....... a. d. 1603 



Death of Shakespeare. . 

Bill of Bights 

Execution of Charles I. 
Restoration. Test Act. 
Habeas Corpus Act. . . . 
Revolution of 



1616 
1628 
1649 
1660 
1679 
1688 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 18th CENTURY. 

William III. of Orange a. d. (1688)-1702 

Anne, sister of Mary " 1702-1714 

George I. of Hanover " 1714-1727 

George II., son of the foregoing " 1727-1760 

George III., grandson of George II " 1760-(1820) 

THE STUART LINE, CONNECTED WITH WTLLIAM OF ORANGE AND THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 

Henry VII. 

Margaret. = . lames IV. of Scotland. 

James V. 

Mary Queen of Scots. = Henry Stuart, 
I Lord Darnley. 

James I. 



Charles I. Elizabeth. = Frederick, 

! I Elector Palatine, 

I I I the " Winter King." 

Mary. Charles 11. Anne Hyde. = James n. = Mary of Modena. ' 

Sophia = Ernest Augustus 
I of Hanover. 

William III. of Orange.^=z=Mary. Aiine. George I. 

James Francis Edward Stuart, „ I _. 

The " Old Pretender," George n. 

1688-1766. ^. L_ , 

j Prince of Wales. 

Charles Edward Stuart, ^ I ^^^ 

the '> Young Pretender," George lU. 

1720-1788. 



390 



ENGLAND. 



William III. owed his election as English king to his marriage 
with James II/s daughter, to his own descent from Charles I. whose 
daughter Mary was his mother, and also to his position as head of 
the Protestant party in Europe. Since France was allied with the 
cause of the Stuarts, it was necessary for England, in expelling them, 
to enter the anti-French alliance which William had organized be- 
fore becoming an English sovereign (pp. 255, 281). William III., 
on his part, used England as one more agent in his continental 
schemes. Hence the English share in the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession, 1700-1713 (pp. 241, 254, 284). 

The reign of Anne, 1702-1714, is distinguished by the Legis- 
lati^'e Union of Scotland with England — the 
union, that is, of the parliaments. This queen 
inherited the policy of William III., and the 
English share in the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession begun by him. 

Lord Marlborough, whose victories of 
Blenheim, Ramillies, and Malplaquet are famous, 
was the controUing mind in English politics till 
his loss of power in 1711. This was the pre- 
lude to the Peace of Utrecht. 
The conditions of this peace are mentioned at pp. 25G, 284, 
—among them the English acquisition of Gibraltar, the key 
of the Mediterranean, and therewith the naval ascendency in the 
Mediterranean, which England has always since retained. By the 
same treaty France abandoned the cause of the Stuarts and recog- 
nized the Hanoverian Succession. This was already in prospect 
through the failing health of Anne and the absence of direct heirs. 
By an Act of Settlement, made in 1701, the succession was 
to pass from Mary and Anne, in default of heirs, to the House of 
Hanover. A daughter of James I. had married the Elector Palatine of 
Germany (the Winter King, p. 247). The daughter of this marriage 
became the wife of a Hanoverian Elector, Ernst August, and the 
mother of the Hanoverian English king George I. (See Genealogy.) 




Qiieeu Anne. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 391 

The party divisions of "Whigs" and "Tories" now first 
became proiiiineiit. The Tories affected the cause of the Stuarts, as 
the. cause of legitimacy and hereditary right. The Whigs were the 
moderates, the supporters of the existing order and of the Hanoverian 
succession. In later times, when the Stuart cause was no longer in 
question, the names were still retained. In our own time the Tories 
are supposed to represent the strict conservative ideas and reaction- 
ary tendencies; the Whigs are the moderate liberals. 

George I., 1714-1727, Elector of Hanover, united a German 
principality with an English kingdom — a union which continued till 
the accession of Queen Victoria (1837), and which largely explains 
the later continental wars of England down to the time of Bona- 
parte. 

G-eorge II., 1727-1760, was, like his father, German in tastes 
and nature, caring little for Engl|^nd, and content to play the role 
of a constitutional king controlled by his ministry. For twenty- 
one years, 1721-1742, England's government was managed by the 
great Whig Minister, Sir Robert Walpole. 

Walpole's policy w^as to assist agriculture, commerce and 
manufactures by keeping the country at peace. His rule was as 
uneventful as it was conducive to prosperity. But this prosperity 
made England grasping and ambitious. Her merchants were jealous 
of the riches to be derived from trade with the Spanish colonies, 
from which they were excluded by the general colonial policy of the 
time. Thus Walpole was finally driven from power, in 1742, by a 
w^ar party which had already, in 1739, forced the country to declare 
war on Spain. 

The War on Spain.— After the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713, both Spain and France were 
governed by the French Bourbon family. Although these countries were sometimes at vari- 
ance, their sympathies were generally allied, especially in questions of their foreign colonies. 
England was jealous of the French settlements in Canada and of French enterprise in develop- 
ing the territories reaching from the Great Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi, and the war 
on Spain indicated a general colonial policy of attack on the possessions of the Bourbons. 

War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748.— The declaration of war on Spain in 
1739 was followed in 1740 by the war of the Austrian Succession (p. 256), and England, already 
involved in broil, could not preserve the neutrality which Walpole had proposed. Since Eng- 



392 ENGLAND. 

land was the rival of France and Spain, she was the natural ally of Maria Theresa. By Eng- 
land's advice Silesia was ceded to Frederick in 1742 (p. 257), thus disposing of one enemy. 
English subsidies gave victory to the Austrian armies else\vhere. But after the fall of Walpole 
(in 1742), who had opposed the policy of war in general and confined himself to the protection 
of the Austrian power, England, in aUiance with Austria, changed to a general policy of attack 
on the French and Spanish Bourbons. 

The success of the English-Hanoverian and Austrian alliance threatened so great an 
aggrandizement of Austria, that Frederick in 1744 allied himself with France, while Austria 
combined with Russia for the partition of Prussia. In 1745 the French, to cripple England, 
aided a landing of the Stuart Pretender, Charles Edward, grandson of James IT., in Scotland. 
Although a victory at Preston Pans, won by his Highlanders, and a second victory at Falkirk, 
in 1746, had no results (his expedition into England was a failure), England was forced by this 
attack in the rear to ally herself with Frederick of Prussia and to withdraw from the alliance 
with Austria, Thus was vindicated Walpole's previous policy of peace with France, which 
had protected England from the attacks of the Stuarts. The war on the Contment ended in 
1748, with a mutual restoration of conquests, in the Peace of Ais-la-Chapelle between France 
and Austria, Frederick retaining Silesia. 

The Seven Years' War. - This peace was really a truce only. Spain and France, joined 
in a "■ family compact," were now aroused by the hostility of England to anticipate further at- 
tacks. By a sudden turn of policy, Austria, no longer threatened by these countries, joined 
with them as a means of recovering Silesia. *Thus the interest of Prussia to hold Silesia 
against Austria, united with the interest of England to supplant the Spaniards in their own 
colonial commerce and to resist the progress of France in the Ohio Valley. From the Missis- 
sippi French traders had worked up the basin of the Ohio ; and the crest of the Alleghanies 
now set a bound to the previously undefined limits on the west of the English American colo- 
nies. Thus came about the outbreak of a war in America which set the whole of Europe in 
flames. 

The beginning of the Seven Years' War, 1756-1783, was the English expedition under 
General Braddock against the French post, Fort Duquesne, established at the fork of the 
Alleghany and the Monongahela where they join in the Ohio. The name of Pittsburg, on the 
site of Fort Duquesne, commemorates the activity of the minister, William Pitt (the Earl of 
Chatham), who now directed the destinies of England. 

On the continent of Europe, Prussia, supported by the money of England, contended against 
the coalition of France, Saxony, Austria, and Russia (p. 257). The withdrawal of Russia from 
this alliance at a critical moment saved Prussia, and the Peace of Hubertshurg, 1763, once more 
secured to her the possession of Silesia, By the peace of the same year at Paris, Spain ceded 
Florida to England (a cession not permanent), and France ceded to England Canada 
and the Mississippi Basin— (to Spain her claims west of the Mississippi). France aban- 
doned all right to military settlements in India. 

British Empire in India.— From this Seven Years' War dates, therefore, the British 
Empire in India, founded by Robert Clive. 

In the time of Elizabeth an East India trading company had been organized, but during the 
century following, only three small trading posts had been acquired— Madras, Bombay, and 
Calcutta. During the War of the Austrian Succession the French, at this time more powerful 
in India than the English, attempted to expel the latter. Clive, who was a clerk of the Eng- 
lish Trading Company, entered its military force, and overthrew the French ascendency in 
Southern Hindoostan, Recalled by ill-health to England, he returned to India at the opening 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 



393 



of the Seven Years' War, and by the victory of Plassey, in 1757, gave the East India Company 
the practical mastery of Bengal. In 1760 he estabUshed securely the English influence in 
Southern Hindoostan. 

In 1773, Warren Hastings, a cleric promoted by Clive, was made Governor-General of India, 
and by his conquests and combinations laid the foundation of British rule over the whole 
country. 

G-eorge III., 1760-1820, was grandson of the last king. 
The peace of 1763 had been owing to the new king's opposition to 
the military ardor of Pitt. George III. was a man of narrow char- 
acter but upright intentions. His personal prejudices had much to 
do with the next important feature of English history— the loss of 
the American colonies. 

The most important cause of this separation was the cession 
to England, in 1763, of the French American territories, as result 
of the Seven Years' War. As long as the French territory hemmed 
in the English Americans on the north and west, and French power 
could unite the Indian tribes against the English colonies, these 
felt the need of English assistance and protection. Eelieved 
from this pressure, the colonies were able to stand alone, and 
accordingly assumed the independent attitude in opposition to 
British taxation which brought 
about the American Eevolution, 
1775-1783. (The more obvious 
and direct causes generally men- 
tioned are sufficiently known.) 

The American Revolu- 
tion. — Once more the earlier 
hostility of England, after Wal- 
pole's time, to the French and 
Spanish Bourbons had here its 
effect. It was the alliance of 
France and Spain, after 1778, 
with the American colonies that 
turned the balance in their favor 
and secured the surrender of Oornwalhs at Yorktown. The naval 




William Pitt, 1759-1806, 



394 ENGLAND. 

victories of Admiral Eodney saved England any further humiliation 
in the Treaty of Paris, 1783, than the loss of the American colonies. 
Florida was re-ceded to 8paiii. 

By the outbreak of the French Revolution, in 1789, 
which owed at least its external impulse to the rise of the American 
Republic, England was drawn into a new series of Continental wars. 
The second William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, was the great 
English minister at this time. Some mention of these wars will be 
found in the sections relating to the French Revolntion and to 
Bonaparte. The sections for the contemporary Irish history will 
also be supplementary for this period. The reign of George III. 
continued beyond the limits of the century. 

laterature.— The 18th century is a distinguished one in English literature. The poet 
Dryden has been already mentioned. Dean Swift was a vigorous controversial writer. 
The "Spectator" essays of Addison and Steele are still quoted for their good diction. 
Pope, as a poet, well represents the general character of his time, refined but artificial. These 
names belong to the earlier part of the century, to the reigns of Anne and Geoi-ge I. In the 
middle period of the century flourished Daniel Defoe, author of " Kobinson Crusoe "; Rich- 
ardson and Fielding-, the novelists ; Dr. Johnson, essayist and critic ; Oliver Gold- 
smith, poet and dramatic author ; and Laurence Sterne. To the latter part of the century 
belong the historians Robertson, Hume, Gibbon, the political economist Adam Smith. 

The Methodists.- From the year 1738, when John Wesley became widely active as a 
preacher, dates the rise of the Methodists. " Wesley considered himself a member of the 
Church of England, and the body he had formed as a lay society dependent on it."— &j'een. 

John Howard, philanthropist and prison reformer, was active after 1774. 

The steam-engine was developed into a practical, mechanical force by James Watt in 
i765. 

GENEALOGY OF THE HANOVERIAN LINE {Continued). 

George I. 

I 
George 11 

Frederick, Prince of Wales. 

George III. 

I \ \ I 

George IV. William IV. Edward, =Victoria of Saxe-Coburg. Ernest Ausfustus, 

Duke of Kent. Duke of Cumberland. 

I King of Hanover after 

Prince Albert ^:== Queen Victoria. 1837 till 1851. 

of Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha. j | 

I George IV. of Hanover, 

Albert Edward. Prince of Wales, Died 1878. 

born, 1841. (Hanover conquered 

by Prussia, 1866.) 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 395 



CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH HISTORY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

War of the Spanish Succegsion begins a. d. 1700 

William ITI. died. Anne succeeds " 1T02 

Union of Scotch and English parliaments " 1707 

Peace of Utrecht. Gibraltar to England. France abandons the Stuarts. " 1713 

Anne died. George I. of Hanover succeeds " 1714 

Walpole's ascendency till 1742, after " 1721 

George I. died. George II. succeeds " 1727 

War on Spain declared " 1739 

England leagued with Austria till the Pretender's invasion " 1746 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Conquestsmutually re-exchanged, but Prussia keeps Shesia. " 1748 
Seven Years' War. England supports Prussia on the Continent. Contests French 

ascendency in India and America, after " 1756 

Peace of Uubertsburg and Peace of Paris. England gains Canada and the Mississippi 

and Ohio Basins, and founds her power in India " 1763 

War with the American colonies " 1775 

Peace of Paris. England loses the American colonies " 1783 

England heads the European Coalitions against France till 1815, after " 1793 

IMPORTANT DATES REHEARSED. 

Peace of Utrecht. End of the Spanish Succession War a. d. 1713 

Peace of Aix-la-Cliapelle. End of the Austrian Succession War '' 1748 

Peace of Paris and Hubertsburg. End of the Seven Years' War " 1763 

Peace of Paris. End of the American Revolution '' 1783 

England heads the Coalitions against France " 1793 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 19th CENTURY. 

George HI a. d. (1760)-1820 

George IV " 1820-1830 

William IV " 1830-1837 

Victoria ** 1837 

The English Sovereigns.— The reign of George III. lasted 
nominally till 1820, but attacks of insanity made it necessary, in 
the later part of his reign, to establish a Regency of his son. This 
son succeeded as George IV. in 1820, reigning till 1830. His 
brother, William IV., followed, reigning till 1837. 



396 



ENGLAND 




Houses of Parliament, London. 



Queen Victoria, his successor, was daughter of the third 

son of George III, the 
Duke of Kent. The 
fourth son of George 
III., the Duke of Cum- 
r^ berland, became king of 

Hanover at her accession, 

thus separating Hanover 

from England. In 1866 

Hanover was conquered 

by Prussia, and united 

with this State (p. 299). 

The important features 

of England's internal 

history, in the early 19th century, were Catholic Emancipation, and 

the reform of the Representative system. For England's share in 

Continental history at this time, see pp. 293-297. 

Measures of Reform. — The Catholic Emancipation Bill, ad- 
mitting Catholics to seats in Parliament, was passed in 1829, It 
had been long deferred by the personal opposition of George III. 
In 1832 the Reform Bill broke dov/n the so-called rotten-borough 
system. By this system many of the largest towns had been left 
without representatives, while places which had lost their impor- 
tance and population, or which had been given members because 
they could be controlled by personal influence, were allowed seats 
in the House of Commons. 

Foreign Events. — The close of the wars with Napoleon, after 
1815, left England at peace until 1853, when she leagued with 
France to support Turkey against the attacks of Russia. This 
war in the Crimea, begun 1854, ended in a triumph for the allies, 
1856. It was followed in 1857 by a mutiny in India of the native 
troops in English pay (Sepoys). After the suppression of the 
revolt the government of India was transferred from the East India 
Company to the English sovereign. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 397 

A new Reform Bill, passed by Mr. Disraeli (later, Earl of 
Beacousfield) in 1867, extended the franchise by conditions which 
admitted large numbers of the working classes. For the later 
Reform Bill of Mr. Gladstone see Irish history. 

The year 1850 witnessed the restoration of the Catholic Hier- 
archy of England, and two years later the first provincial synod of 
the English bishops was held at the College of Oscott. 

The most important features of Eng-lish history in the 19tli century are her 
immense manufacturioG: and commercial prosperity, and the power of her colonial empires in 
India, Australia, and Canada. 

On the other hand, sources of constant expense and annoyance ai-e found in small foreign 
wars with barbarous nations to "preserve the prestige" of the British crown. Kecent wars 
with Abyssinia, with Dahomey, and with the Dutch Boers of South Africa, come under this 
head. 

A second source of trouble lies in the English jealousy of Russian advance in Asia, where 
the Russians, in approaching the boundaries of India, are supposed to threaten the security 
of the Indian Empire. It is undoubtedly true that if the Hindoos should become seriously dis- 
affected, a foreign European power on the frontier would tend to promote trouble. 

The third cause of trouble for England lies in the agitation and dissatisfaction of her Irish 
subjects. The sources of this dissatisfaction are indicated in the Irish history. 



CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH HISTORY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Slave trade abolished a. d. 1807 

Battle of \Vaterloo. English participation in the Congress of Vienna " 1815 

Death of George III " 1820 

First Steamboat on the Thames " 1822 

Catholic Emancipation " 1829 

Death of George IV " 1830 

First Railway opened " " 

Reform Bill " 1833 

Slavery abolished in the Colonies " 1833 

Death of William IV. Accession of Queen Victoria " 1837 

Penny Post " 1840 

Electric Telegraph first practically worked " 1847 

Catholic Hierarchy restored " 1850 

First Great Exhibition " 1851 

Crimean War, 1854 to. " 1856 

Sepoy Rebellion " 1857 

Submarine Telegraph to America " 1858 

Extension of the Franchise by Disraeli " 1S6T 



398 ENGLANB 



GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ENGLISH HISTORY. 

FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 

What German Principality was separated from English rule by the accession of Queen 
Victoria ? 

When was Hanover united with Ensjland ? (P. 391.) 

What large increase of territory had Hanover obtained about that time ? (P. 262.) 

Who was the founder of the House of Hanover V (Pp. 161, 162.) 

By what relationship did the House of Hanover obtain the English crown ? (P. 389.) 

Name the English sovereigns of the House of Hanover ? 

Name, by reference to the table (p. 397) or otherwise, important events in the reign of Vic- 
toria ? In the reign of George IV. ? Of George III. ? Of George II. ? 

When did George I. begin his reign ? 

Who was the last of the Stuart sovereigns ? (P. 390.) 

When did she die ? (P. 889.) 

W^hose daughter was she ? 

Who preceded her ? 

What w^as the foreign policy of her predecessor? (P. 390.) 

When was the Dutch Republic founded ? (P. 246.) 

What important war during the reign of Queen Anne ? 

What did England obtain by the Treaty of Peace ? (Pp. 390, 284, 260.) 

What did she gain by the Seven Years' War ? (P. 392.) 

What influence had this gain in promoting the American Revolution ? (P. 393.) 

Where was the beginning of the Seven Years' War ? (P. 392.) 

What Continental power was at this time allied with England ? 

How far was Hanover (Brunswick-Liinebnrg) from Prussia ? See map for 1748, p. 256. 

What province was Austria endeavoring to reconquer from Prussia? (P. 257.) 

In what war was England the ally of Austria? (P. 391.) 

Why did she abandon this alliance ? (P. S92.) 

When did the Stuart Pretender land in England ? (P. 392.) 

Why had Walpole favored an alliance with Prance ? (P. 392.) 



SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 

In whose reign did Walpole's ministry begin ? (P. 391.) 

What colonial policy did England pursue after his time ? (P. 391.) 

Who assisted the American colonies to obtain independence ? (P. 393.) 

When were the American colonies first settled by the English ? (P. 384.) 

Why did they grow rapidly by later emigration ? (P. 384.) 

In whose reign ? 

Who was the first Stuart king of England ? (P. 383.) 

What are the most important events of his reign ? 

Why did an English party oppose the government of Charles I. ? (P. 384.) 

Why did he need money ? 

Why was the Bill of Rights passed ? When ? 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 399 

What is the date for the Peace of Westphalia ? (P. 250.) For the execution of Charles I. ? 
For the accession of Louis XIV ? (P. 276.) 

What French sovereign was the contemporary of Charles 11. ? (P. 276.) Of James TI ? 

What battle defeated the effort of James II. to regain his throne ? (P. 387.) 

What feature of the English Constitution dates from the time of William of Orange ? 
(P. 387.) 

What relation was he to Charles I. ? (P. 389.) 

What French Minister was the contemporary of Cromwell ? (P. 276.) 

Who was the mother of James I. ? (P. 389.) 

When did she die ? (P. 380.) 

How long before the S[)anish Armada ? (P. 381.) 

What trouble had Elizabeth after the Spanish Armada ? (P. 381.) 

What part of the Kith century is taken up by the reign of Henry VIII. : (P. 376,) 

Mention some contemporary Continental events. (P. 239.) 

What French reigns correspond to that of Elizabeth ? (P. 264.) 

What Spanish reign corresponds to hers ? (P. 241.) 

What English reigns correspond to that of Charles V. ? (P. 376.) 

Who was the father of Henry VIII. ? 

What wars were closed by his accession ? (P. 375.) 

In what century ? 

How caused ? 



THIRD PcEYIEW LESSON". 

Who was the tirst Lancasterian king ? (P. 373.) 
Name the Lancasterian kings ? (P. 373.) 
When did Richard II. die ? (P. 371.) 
To what line does he belong ? 
Whence the name of Plantagenet ? (P. 364.) 
What other name have the Plantagenets ? (P. 364.) 
Who was the first Plantagenet ? (P. 364.) 

What French possessions were ruled by the Norman kings before him ? (P. 363.) 
What French possessions did he add ? (P. 364.) Note that Anjou, at this time, included 
Touraine. 

Who first lost a portion of those provinces? (P. 365.) 

Why? (P. 365.) 

Date the Magna Charta ? (P. 365.) 

What made the English Norman Barons dissatisfied with John ? (P. 366. ' 

Who was the French contemporary of Henry III. ? (P. 189.) Of Edward I. ? (P. 189.) 

Why were the French kings antagonists of the English at this time ? (P. 370.) 

Who assisted the Scotch in the time of Edward L ? (P. 370.) 

What war did this cause ? (P. 370 ) 

When was the Peace of Bretigny ? (P. 370.) 

What difference did it make as to English possessions in France ? 

In whose reign were these possessions finally lost ? (P. 374.) 

What English king lost favor by failing to prosecute the French war ? (P. 371.) 

What relic does England preserve of her old French possessions ? (P. 365.) 



400 ENGLAND, 

FOURTH EEVIEW LESSON. 

By what conquest was the Anglo-Saxon period of English history ended ? (P. 362.) 

What relation were the Normans to the Danes ? (P. 362.) 

When did Danish attacks on England begin ? (P. 359.) 

What assisted Danish power in England ? (P. 359.) 

Who assisted the rise of Wessex ? (P. 358.) 

What Anglo-Saxon State preceded Wessex in greatness ? (P. 358.) 

What Anglo-Saxon State preceded Mercia ? (P. 356.) 

When does the greatness of Northumbria begin ? (P. 355.) 

When did Roman missionaries fli'st convert the Anglo-Saxons ? (P. 355.) 

Was this the first establishment of Christianity in Britain ? 

When were the British first Christianized ? (P. 353.) 

Who overthrew the British Christianity ? (P. 354.; 

How long was the Roman rule of Britain ? (Pp. 352, 353.) 

How long was the Anglo-Saxon period ? (Pp. 353-362.) 

When does the modern English language begin its existence ? (P. 375.) 

Of what languages is it composed ? 

Who was the first national king of England ? (P. 366.) 

How many English kings were also French barons ? Ans. All between William the Con- 
queror and Henry III., inclusive. 

Name these kings. 

When was the feudal relation of the English kings to the French kings finally severed ? 
(P 370.) 

Map Studies.— England under the Romans, see p. 116 (where, however, only a small por- 
tion of the island appears). 

England under the Anglo-Saxons, pp. 140, 154, 156. 

England under the Normans and French Angevins (or Plantagenets), pp. 182, 200. 

England in the 10th century, p. 228. 

England during the wars of Charles I. with the Parliament, p. 250. 

England in the 18th century, pp. 254, 256. Notice the section map. 

England in the 19th century, pp. 292, 296, 298, 300. 

Observe the use of the same color for England and Hanover at p. 254 and later maps. 



SCAN DI N AVIA. 



PAGAN PERIOD, TO A. D. looo. 



Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have been comprised, since the time 
of the Romans, under the general term of Scandinavia. They were peopled 
before the Christian era by a race of the Germanic 
family which still spoke a common language in the 
8th century after Christ. The early literature and 
foj-ms of this language have been best preserved in 
Iceland, because this country, of all those peopled by 
the Scandinavians, has been most isolated and unin 
fluenced by change. 

The Scandinavian countries were un- 
doubtedly frequented by Phoenician traders in early 
antiquity. They were visited by the Greek voyager 
Pytheas of Marseilles in the 4th century b. c. They 
were chiefly known to the Romans by the amber 
found on the shores of the Baltic, which was highly 
prized by the Roman ladies. 

In the early Middle Ages the Scandinavians 
were known as Northmen or Danes. As Northmen 
we hear of their settlement in France. In England 

they appear as Danes In Ireland they were known by the latter name, and also 
as Ostmen (men from the east). The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, who settled 
earlier in England, belonged to the same branch of Germanic race, and the ter- 
ritory left vacant by them in Sleswick-Holstein and Jutland, was simply re- 
peopled by other "Danes" of the same family. To the Scandinavian branch 
of the Germans belonged also the Goths of the German invasions. The divi- 
sions of East and West Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths) existed before their 
migration from the southern part of Norway and Sweden. 



Stone Implements of early 
Scandinavia. 



402 



60AND1NAV1A. 




Norman Ship. From a Tapestry of the 11th Century. 



The main occupation of the Scandinavians, down to tlie year 1000 A. D., 
was piracy. After this date, they gradually became Christianized and fixed in- 
habitants at home or in the settlements made elsewhere before this time. 

Navig-ation.— As implied in the length and number of their voyages, the shipbuilding art 
was? carried to higli perfection, A nearly constructed galley, in perfect preservation, surrounded 

with all carpenter's tools and ship- 
building accessories, has recently 
been unearthed and is now pre- 
served near Christiana. 

Characteristic s.— The 
Northmen believed that their 
chief divmity, Odin (Woden), was 
to be propitiated by gold, and this 
was one cause of their piratical 
expeditions. Their treasures were 
often buried with them. A wild 
and ferocious bravery was a na- 
tional characteristic. Certain war- 
riors, to show their contempt for 
life, made a practice of fighting 
in their shirts (sarks) and were called Bersekers (bare-sarkers). Another custom was .the 
" holm-gang " (holm, an island), the practice of resorting to some small and untenanted island 
in order to fight out a quarrel to the death. From the word^vik," a bay, was derived the 
word "viking,'" that is, to go out on a piratical excursion ; and the sea-marauders were thence 
called Vikingar. From the same word, " vik," are 
derived names of English towns ending in " wick.'' 
Nautical terms in English are mainly of Danish origin. 
The Pagranisra of the Scandinavians was like 
their national character— a mixture of cruelty and 
imaginative mysticism. Human sacrifices were habit- 
ually offered as late as the 11th century. Influences 
of Phoenician Moloch-worship are very apparent, 
although the Scandinavian mythology has many points 
of contact with the ancient Greek and other Aryan 
religions, and had the same origins. 

Sag-as.— Much attention was paid to genealogies, history, and mythological poetry. Nar- 
rations on these subjects were called Sagas. The Sagas were recited from memory by the bards 
or Skalds. 

Government.— The Scandinavian countries were divided into a multitude of petty king- 
doms, until the general divisions of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark became gradually recog- 
nized as separate kingdoms in the 9th and 10th centuries a. d. 

The migrations from the Scandinavian countries, recorded in order of 
time, begin with those of the Goths, who left their own country to settle above 
the Danube in the od century A. D. (p. 133). The Anglo-Saxons left Sleswick, 
Holstein, and Jutland in the 5th century A. D. (p. 854). Mixed bands of Nor 




Viking Swords. Museum of Bergen. 



PAGAN PERIOD. 403 

Wegians, Swedes and Danes were engaged in constant piratical attacks on all 
shores of Europe from the close of the 8th to the close of the 11th century. 

Reg-nor Lodbrok, king of Denmark, led in person the first attacks on Entjland (the first 
recorded by English annals). In 793 he sacked Lindisfai-ne, and was killed in Northumbria the 
following year, after which his kinsmen made permanent settlements in Yorkshire. The Scan- 
dinavian chronicles claim conquests in Northumbria a century earlier. Beside the settlements 
in Ireland (p. 321), Norwegian Northmen also ruled Man, Anglesea, the Hebrides, the Orkneys, 
the Shetlands, and the Faroe Islands— after 800. Scotland did not regain the Hebrides and 
Orkneys till 1262, nor the Shetlands till 1470. Swedish Northmen ruled Russia after 862. The 
dynasty of the Northman Rurik continued there till 1598. 

The Norweg-ian king" Harold Fair-haired, after 863, exerted himself to repress 
piracy on his own shores. This led discontented freebooters to migrate to Iceland— first 
visited by Northmen two years earlier— and to France (legal possession of Normandy, 911). 
From Iceland Greenland was settled after 983, and America after 1003. French Normans 
ruled Naples and Sicily after 1059, and Eng-land after lOGG. 

The hody-gnard of the Byzantine Emperors was also composed of Northmen (the 
" Varangians ") largely drawn from Sweden. It was the passing of these warriors through 
Russia, to and from Constantinople, which led the way to their rule in Russia above men- 
tioned. 

In 826 a Danish prince who took refuge in exile with Louis the Pious at 
Ingelheim, was baptized with his family. At the emperor's instance, Ansca- 
rius, a monk of Corvey, then undertook a mission to the pagans of Scandi- 
navia. He became the first Apostle of the North, and its Patron Saint. 

St. Anscar labored constantly in Denmark and Sweden until his death, 
865, against incredible difficulties and obstacles. As first Archbishop of Ham- 
burg (founded by Charlemagne), he worked with his own hands at making 
ropes and nets for subsistence until the town was burned by the pagan Danes. 
His mission was the first effort to struggle with a barbarism which for nearly 
two centuries longer generally resisted Christianity. 

Beginnings of Denmark. — Nearly contemporary with the death of 
St. Anscar is the accession of Gorm, after 860, the first Danish king who united 
the countries of later Denmark ; viz., the Peninsula of Jutland, Zealand, Funen, 
and adjacent islands, and the adjoining coast-provinces of Southern Sweden, 
Skaania, Halland and Bleking. (These Swedish provinces were generally Danish 
till 1658.) Gorm's Norwegian contemporary was the Harold Fair-haired already 
mentioned. Sweden being more remote, is less known ; but this is also the 
time when the Swedish Varangians founded the Northman dynasty in Russia, 
862 A. D. 



404 



SCANDINAVIA 



MEDIEVAL PERIOD, A. D. 1000-1500. 



Christianity first began to be firmly established under tlie Dane Canute 
the Great, 1014-1035, during whose reign the Scandinavian countries were 
united with each other and with England (p. 361). When separated again at 
his death, Denmark continued to be the most conspicuous country, because most 
nearly in contact with civilizing influence. 

The great time of Medieval Denmark was the age of the Valde- 
mars, from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 13th century (Valde- 
mar 1., 1157-1182 ; Canute TL. 1182-1202 ; Valdemar II., 1202-1241). 

To the time of Valdemar I. belongs tbe famous Danish Archbishop 
Absalon. His efforts raised to importance Copenhagen, the present capital of 
Denmark. By liis care also have been preserved the popular tales and folk-lore 
of Denmark. Under his direction was written, to this end, the work of Saxo 
Grammaticus, a monk of Sorce, near Copenhagen. From Saxo Grammaticus, 
through French transmission, Shakespeare drew the story of Hamlet ; and in 
this author, who wrote a century before William Tell, is found the story of the 
father shooting an apple from his child's head. It is told of a freebooter 
named Palnatoke, contemporary with Sweyn, the father of Canute. The sister 
of Canute YL, Ingeberg, was married to Philip II. of France. Pope Innocent 
III. protected her from desertion by this king. 

The Wends. — The Valdemars were active in combating a nation which, 

in piracy and pagan barbarism, 
rivaled the Scandinavians of 
earlier time, the Slavonic 
Wends of the Island of Rugen 
and of Pomerania. Valdemar 
II. was also commissioned by 
Pope Honorius III. with the 
subjugation of the Pagan Fin- 
nic populatioDS of Esthonia, 
where Revel was founded by 
the Danes. 

It was at this time that 

the Sword Brothers, 

founded 1201 by the Bishop of 

Riga, and given the Order of the Temple by Pope Innocent III., began their 

crusading mission against the Pagan Lithuauic population of Courlaud and 




Cathedral of Drontheim, 13th centmy. 



MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIODS. 405 

Livonia. In Prussia Proper the same task was undertaken, after 1225, by the 
Order of the Teutonic Knights. The two brotherhoods were united as the 
Teutonic Order, 1237, and subsequently also held Esthonia. 

The 12th century is marked for Sweden by the conquest of Finland, 
after 1154 (retained till 1809), and the first beginnings there of Christianity. 

In the 13th century Norwegian rule was extended to Iceland (till then 
a Republic), aud to the Greenland colony (extinct in the 14th century). 

At the close of the 14th century Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 
were united under one government by the Union of Calmar, 1397. 

SCANDINAVIA, AFTER A. D. 1500. 

Oldenburg Dynasty. — This Union of Calmar was permanent for Den- 
mark and Norway till 1814. These countries were ruled, after 1448, by a 
German dynasty — the House of Oldenburg — a Principality bordering the 
western bank of the Weser where it enters the German Ocean. 

Vasas in Sweden. — The L^nlon of Calmar was rather nominal than real 
for Sweden till 1520, after which date Gustavus Vasa, a Swedish noble, estab 
lished once more a separate dynasty. The expenses of the war, by which Swe- 
den was separated from Denmark, led Vasa to supply his exhausted treasury by 
levying on the property of the Church, for which the contemporary Lutheran 
schism offered an excuse. In Denmark and Norway, also, Lutheranism was 
favored and largely introduced by the influence of selfish political and personal 
motives ; the temptation of sudden wealth to be gained for king and nobles. 

SCANDINAVIA, AFTER A. D. 1600. 

In the 17th century the Scandinavian countries played a prominent 
part. Christian IV. of Denmark was engaged against Austria in the early part 
of the Thirty Years' War (p. 317). In its second period Gustavus Adolphus 
of Sweden was the leading opponent of Austria, and the Swedes remained in 
Germany till the Peace of Westphalia, 1648. 

By the acquisition of the Bishoprics of Bremen and Verden in 
this Peace, Sweden controlled the commerce of the Weser and Elbe. By the 
acquisition of Western Pomerania she controlled the Oder. The entire mas- 
tery of the Baltic was secured, with the Provinces of Carelia and Ingria, 
ceded by Russia, 1617, Peace of Stolbova, and of Esthonia and Livonia, ceded 
by the Peace of Oliva, made with Poland in 1660. (Poland had obtained 
these provinces through the dissolution of the Teutonic Order after 1570.) 



406 SCANDINAVIA. 

Poland was ruled at this time by a Catholic branch of the Vasas, and the 
wars with this state, ended by the Peace of Oliva, resulted from claims of 
the Polish Vasas to the Swedish throne. Two years earlier, the Peace of Roes- 
kilde with Denmark had given Sweden the provinces of Skaania, Halland, and 
Bleking, 1658. 

An interesting episode of Swedish history in the 17th century is the abdica- 
tion and conversion to Catholicism of Queen Christina, daughter and heir of 
Gustavus Adolphus. Her cousin and successor was Charles X,, who was suc- 
ceeded by a son and grandson of the same name. 

Charles XII. of Sweden was only fifteen when he became king in 
1697. His youth and presumed inexperience tempted Russia, Poland, and 
Denmark to combine for the overthrow of the empire so largely built up at 
their expense. Denmark opened the war, and was forced in one short campaign 
to make a humiliating peace by the treaty of Travendal, 1700. 

Peter the Great's Russian army of 63,000 men was next beaten by 
8,000 Swedes in the famous battle of Narva, 1700 (in Ingria). In this, as in all 
his battles, Charles XII. was foremost as personal combatant. The states of 
Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony and king of Poland (after the death of 
Sobieski, 1696), were next overrun. Frederick Augustus was deposed in Poland 
in favor of Stanislaus Leczinsky, a Polish noble. After spending five years in 
Poland, Charles turned against Russia. He was diverted from his march on 
Moscow by the proposals of the Cossack chief Mazeppa. Mazeppa was a Pole, 
and in youth the page of a nobleman whose anger he incurred. As punishment 
he was bound to the back of an unbroken horse, which was set free to roam at 
will. He was borne to the plains of the lower Dnieper, where he was rescued 
and cared for by the Cossacks. 

Mazeppa ofEered to raise the Cossacks in favor of Charles XII. The 
Russian Tzar anticipated this projected revolt, and took such measures that 
only a small number of Cossacks and no provisions reached the Swedes. These 
were meantime exhausted by incessant marches over desolate territories, and 
by the terrible severity of Russian vdnter weather. , 

In the battle of Pultava, 1709, the Swedes were utterly defeated by 
Peter the Great, and Charles XII. took refuge in Turkish territory at Bender. 
He spent here several years, endeavoring to push Turkey into a Russian war. 
The Turks did declare war, but made an easy peace with Peter when his army 
was entirely surrounded by them on the Pruth in 1711. Charles did not 
abandon his hopes of rekindling the war till 1714 ; remaining in Turkey while 
his enemies in the North (now joined by Prussia, and the Elector of Hanover, 
soon to be George I. of England) were making constant progress. 



EIGHTEENTH C E N T U 11 Y . 407 

In 1714 be returned to find the Swedish German possessions and the Baltic 
provinces almost entirely conquered. After an unsuccessful effort to hold 
Stralsund, he passed over to Sweden and continued Avar on Denmark by in- 
vading Norway. One motive of this campaign was to secure a base for an 
expedition against England in the cause of the Stuarts. The Swedish terri- 
tory of Bremen and Verdeu had been conquered by Denmark in the absence of 
Charles XII., and w^as turned over to the Hanoverian state of George I. (king 
of England after 1714) ; hence this project. But Charles was killed at the siege 
of the Norwegian town of Friedrickshall in 1718. His military trophies and his 
uniform are still kept in Stockholm. 

The result of his career w^as the overthrow of Swedish ascendency in 
North Germany, to be replaced by Prussia, and of Swedish control of the 
Baltic, to be replaced by that of Russia. Russia became mistress of the sea 
where twenty years before she had not a single ship, and of the Baltic provinces 
of Carelia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia, a most important part of her modem 
territories. (Peace of Nystad, 1721.) 

To Prussia was ceded that part of Swedish Pomerania commanding the 
Oder (the western part of Swedish Pomerania not Prussian till 1815, p. 800). 

The increase of Hanover by the territories of Bremen and Verden 
was a most important one. The constant participation of England in the Con- 
tinental wars and politics of the 18th century (War of the Austrian Succession, 
Seven Years' War, etc.), and also in the time of Bonaparte, is made clearer 
when we understand that the English king was sovereign of an important 
German province controlling the commerce of the Weser and Elbe. 



Charles XII. is one of the most singular characters of history. His obstinate personal 
bravery and willing eudnrauce of soldier hardt>hip are without parallel. To his unbending 
hardihood he owed the most astounding siiccesses and the most humiliating defeats. 

"When Frederick Aug-ustus of Saxony endeavored to obtain some mitigation of 
his humiliation from Charles, and the two monarchs met in the Swedish camp in Saxony, the 
Swede was in his usual homely garb— a coarse blue coat with gilt brass buttons, buckskin 
gloves that reached to the elbows, and a piece of black taffety tied round his neck for a cravat. 
Not a syllable was uttered on the subject of the journey. The conversation turned wholly on 
the king's jack-boots, which he told his royal guest he had worn constantly for six years, 
never laying them aside except when he went to sleep. ... He mounted his horse thrice 
a day, rose at four in the morning, dressed himself with his own hands, drank no wine, sat at 
table only a quarter of an hour, exercised his troops every day, and knew no other pleasure 
but that of making Europe tremble."" In the first war on Denmark, at the attack on Copen- 
hagen, Charles landed his troops in small boats under heavy fire, and when driven back he 
reformed them in the water as though on parade, and led them forward to victory. At Narva 
the Swedes charged in a blinding snow-storm.. 

During- his stay in Turkey, the Ottoman government, which had treated him with 



408 SCANDINAVIA. 

great hospitality, furnishing money and supplies literally, at length became wearied with his 
intrigues and caprices, and anxious to hasten his return. His allowance was retrenched, but 
this only made him spend with the greater profusion. His subterfuges and evasions made it 
obvious that force alone could accomplish what had been attempted in vain by more lenient 
means. A resolution of the Turkish State Council to that effect was conveyed to Charles. 
" Obey your master if you dare," said Charles to the bearer of the mandate, and began to 
adopt measures of defence, by employing his domestics in barricading doors and windows and 
throwing up regular entrenchments. These operations being finished, in which he assisted with 
his own hands, he sat down to chess and afterward went quietly to sleep, as if everything were in 
a state of perfect security, although his household was deprived of provisions and invested on 
all sides with an army of 26,000 Turks and Tartars. On the following morning, with cool 
intrepidity, he went through all the formalities of arranging a pitched battle. The cooks and 
grooms had their respective stations assigned them, while the defence of others was intrusted 
to his chancellor and secretary. After a desperate conflict, in which the Turks with much 
bloodshed were repulsed from the house, the Pacha, ashamed of sacrificing a whole army to 
capture a single individual, ordered the premises to be set on fire. The inmates, after trying 
to extinguish the conflagration with a cask of brandy, mistaken for a barrel of water, rushed 
like maniacs from the burning pile and attacked their assailants swoi-d in hand. In this sally 
Charles fell, entangled with his spurs. The Turks sprang upon him instantly, and carried him 
by the arms and legs to the tent of their commander. No sooner was he completely over- 
mastered than the violence and irritation of his temper at once subsided. He even spoke of 
the " battle of Bender " in a strain of playful jocularity, and next morning he was found by 
his attendants sleeping on a sofa (having declined the luxury of a bed), bareheaded and in 
boots, his eyebrows scorched and his whole body covered with dust and blood. This episode 
occurred some time before the departure from Turkey. 

After the changes wliicli preceded or immediately followed his death, 
the Scandinavian countries occupy a subordinate place in history. Since the times 
of the Vikings, Norway was always of minor importance, on account of its rugged 
and barren territory. Denmark's position at the entrance to the Baltic gave 
her, however, an influential commercial position. The Sound dues, levied on 
passing foreign ships, ostensibly for the maintenance of light-houses, &c., were 
an important source of revenue. 

In the times of the French Revolution and of Bonaparte, Sweden 
was generally a determined opponent of the French— at one time England's 
solitary ally. Denmark was in general an ally of the French or hostile to 
England. 

Sweden's Loss of Finland.— By refusing to follow the Russian policy, after the Peace 
of Tilsit in 1807 (p. 295), of commercial exclusion toward England, Sweden was involved in a 
Russian war which cost her Finland, in 1809— a most important gain for Russia, as securing 
St. Petersburg. This loss to Sweden was not balanced by the union with Norway in 1814, which 
Denmark was obliged to cede in consequence of her misfortunes as ally of Bonaparte. Denmark 
was given in return the remaining portion of Swedish Pomerania, but immediately passed it 
over to Prussia for a sum of money and the small principality of Lauenburg, as addition to 
Holstein, making the Elbe her border on the south, 



CHRONOLOGY. 409 

This boundary was not a permanent gain for Denmark, which, in 1866, lost the 
whole of Sleswick-Holstein to Prussia. Quite lately Iceland has been made independent. 

Notwithstanding her lecent misfortunes, Denmark is one of the best governed of modern 
kingdoms, and the standard of State education is exceptionally high. 

The united king-dom of Norway and Sweden, confined to its natural boundaries 
and offering no temptation to foreign aggression, is a well-governed and peaceful State. Since 
about 1830 both this kingdom and Denmark have been ruled by constitutional monarchy. 
Absolute monarchy was, with some intermission, the government of both from the close of the 
16th until the 19th century. This form of government was distinctly recognized as a protec- 
tion for the lower orders against the nobility— an interesting parallel to the history of other 
states (p. 278). In Denmark the German Oldenburg line still continues (reigning king 
Christian IX.). In Sweden the present dj'nasty, represented by Oscar II., dates from the 
French General Bernadotte, who was elected Crown-prince in 1810, and became Charles XIV. 
in 1818. 

Among- distinguished men of science Denmark boasts the name of Tycho Brahe, 
astronomer of the 16th century (died 1601). He preceded and influenced the celebrated German 
astronomer Keppler, with whom he finally was personally associated in Pi-ague. To Sweden 
belongs the name of Linnaeus, Professor of Botany in the University of Upsala after 1743. 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

What general European war was contemporary with the campaigns of Charles XTT ? 
(P. 254.) 

What French and English sovereigns were his contemporaries ? (Pp. 283, 395.) 

What Russian sovereign ? (P. 260.) 

Mention contemporary sovereigns in time of Gustavus Adolphus, reign 1611-1632? 
(Pp. 270, 383.) 

Who was English contemporary of Gustavus Yasa ? (P. 376.) 

What German emperor was contemporary of Valdemar I. ? (P. 163.) 

What Pope was contemporary of Canute YI. ? (P. 404.) 

What French king ? (P. 189.) 

How long after Charlemagne (p. 154) did Northman rule begin in Russia ? In Iceland ? 
(P. 403.) 

Map Study.— For Danish possessions in Southern Sweden, noted at p. 403 (Skaania, Hol- 
land, and Bleking), see '• Europe in the 12th century," p. 182. 

See map at p. 200 for Rugen and Pomerania. 

See " Europe in 1648," p. 2.50, for the following countries or provinces : Finland (southern 
portion), Carelia, Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, Swedish Bremen and Yerden (mouth of 
the Elbe), Swedish Pomerania, Oldenburg. 

See the same map for the following localities : Hamburg, Copenhagen, Calmar, Oliva, Roe- 
skilde, Travendal, Narva, Pultava, Bender, Frederickshall, Nystad. 

Notice the section map for the lower Dnieper at p. 254. 



410 



SCANDINAVIA. 



SYNCHRONISTIC GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 



DENMARK. 


NORWAY. 


SWEDEN. 


Gorm, 

after 860. 

St. Anscar, 

+865. 

Settlements in 

England and Ireland 

before and after 

Gorm. 


Harold Fair-haired, 

after 863. 
Iceland then settled. 

Normandy, 911. 
Greenland settled, 

933. 

America settled, 

1003. 


Rurik in Russia, 

after 862. 

Varangians in 

Constantinople 

before and after 

this time. 



Canute the Great, 

1014-1035. 

Christianity 

established. 



Age of the 

Valdemars, 

1157-1241. 



Union of Calmar, 
1397. 

Oldenburg Dynasty 
after 1448. 



Canute the Great, 
1014-1035. 

Christianity 
established. 

Iceland and Greenland 

ruled by Norway, 

13th centurv. 



Union of Calmar, 
1397. 

Oldenburg Dynasty, 
after 1448. 



Canute the Great, 
1014-1035. 



Christianity 

established. 

Finland 

conquered, 1154. 



Union of Calmar, 
1397. 

Oldenburg Dynasty, 
after 1448. 



Lutheran schism in Scandinavian countries, 
after 1520. 



Vasas in Sweden, after 1520. 



Christian IV. in the Thirty Yearfe' War. 
1625-1629. 



War with Sweden, Peace of Roeskilde, 

1658, see opposite column. 

War with Sweden ; no changes ; no reference in text. 

Peace of Copenhagen, 1660. 

War with Sweden, Peace of Travendal, 

in 1700. 

Denmark renews the war after Pultava, 

in alliance with Russia, Prussia, and Hanover. 

War closed by death of Charles XII. at Frederickshall. 



Denmark the ally of Bonaparte. 
Loses, in consequence, Norway, 1814. 



Gustavus Adolphus, after 1611 

Carelia and Ingria, 

acq. 1617, from Russia. 

Bremen, Verden, Pomerania, 

acq. 1648, from Germany. 

Skaania, Halland. Bieking, 

acq., 1653, from Denmark. 

Esthonia, Livonia, 

acq., 1660, from Poland. 

Charles XII., 1697-1718. 

Loss of German territories 
and Baltic provinces. 
Decline of Sweden. 



Finland to Russia, 
1809. 



Denmark acq. Lauenbui'g 
and the Elbe boundary," 

1815. 

Loses Lauenburg and 

Sleswick-Holstein to 

Prussia 1866. 



Union of Norway with Sweden. 



Line of Beruadotte, as Charles XIV. 
after 1818. 



RUSSIA AND POLAND. 



BEFORE THE TARTAR CONQUEST. 

The first accounts of Eastern Europe are found in Herodotus, whose 
knowledge was drawn from tlic Greek settlements in the Crimea, around the 
Sea of Azof, and along the northern coast of the Black Sea. Beyond these 
Greek colonies lay the Scythians — some wandering, some agricultural — and 
other savage tribes. 

It is probable that the ancestors of the modern Russians formed a portion of 
this population. But nothing is known of them until after the disturbances 
and displacements caused by the German migrations, when the Slavonian 
peoples are found reaching into Germany as far as the Elbe (p. 154). 

To the Slavonian family belong, beside the tribes afterward subdued 
or expelled in this part of Germany, the Tzechs of Bohemia, the Servians and 
Bulgarians, the Poles and the Russians. 

In the 9th Century A. D., Avhen our knowledge of Russian history 
begins, the Russian Slavonians were centred in the territory in which the 
Dniester, Dnieper, southern Dwina and Ilmen take their rise. The Finns ex- 
tended over Northern Russia, above the upper Volga and its tribvitaries. The 
lower basin of the Volga on the west side, and the basin of the Don, were 
peopled by mixed Finnish and Turkish tribes. East of the lower Volga and in 
the country of the Ural river w^ere Turks or Tartars. 

Daring the course of Russian history the Slavonic element has generally 
assimilated or swallowed up the once widely extended Finnish and Tartar 
populations. These, however, were not all entirely barbarian. The Empire of 
the Khazars, mixed Finns and Turks, in and above the Crimea and covering 
the lower valleys of the Dnieper and Don, was in the 9th century a flourish- 
ing State. 

Although the Tower Dnieper was thus held by a foreign power, it was the 



412 



RUSSIA 



cliannel by which civilization came from the Byzantine Empire (pp. 135, 136) 
to the Russian Slavonians. Their rulers, on the other hand, came from the 
north — from Sweden (p. 403). Swedish Northmen, familiar (as Varangians, 
p. 408) with the Slavonic country, as the route to Byzanz, were invited by the 
disorganized and jarring tribes to rule over them. A band headed by Rurik 
accepted the invitation, 862. (The Swedes were called by the Finns " Russ," 
hence the word Russia.) 

Rurik established himself at Novgorod on the Ilmen ; by its connection 

through Lake Ladoga and the Neva, 
an important port of Baltic com- 
merce. His son Igor made Kief, 
on the Dnieper, his capital. Igor's 
widow, Olga, succeeded him, and 
visited Constantinople, where she 
became a Christian convert. 

The beginnings of Chris- 
tianity in Russia date, then, after 
1 lie middle of the 10th century, 
i Igor died 945.) They came from 
Byzanz, so that the Russians belong 
10 the Greek Church. The relative 
i»arbarism of modern Russia results 
not only from the disadvantages of 
climate and position, but also from 
the inferior vitality of the Eastern 
Church, whose forms she adopted ; 
while Poland and Bohemia, as con- 
verts to Roman Catholic Christian- 
ity (p. 158), were thus connected with 
Western civilization. 

The Northmen of Russia 
engaged in frequent warfare both 
for and against the Byzantine state, 
and the accounts of the Normans in France and elsewhere give us a fair 
idea of their character. 

In the 11th century the Norman ruling family was intermarried with 
many of the West European states, The Grand Prince Jaroslaf sheltered the 
sons of Edmund Ironsides (p. 363). His reign (till 1054) was the glory of Kief, 
" the city of four hundred churches." 




Russian painting of the Madonna at Vladimir. 
(Twelfth, Century.) 



TARTAR INVASIONS. 413 

After this time the habit of dividing the state among the heirs of the 
prince, and the feudal tendencies of the age, broke Russia into a number of 
principalities, but all were ruled by descendants of Rurik. Besides Novgorod 
and Kief may be named Pskof on the Peipus, Smolensk on the Dnieper, Tver 
on the upper Volga, Riazan on the Oka, and Vladimir on the Kliazma. The 
towns on the upper Volga and its branches were at this time the advanced posts 
of Russia against the Finnish populations on the east, and were especially 
developed by Vladimir the Great, 12th century. 

Kief, on the other hand, declined ; because the Khazars had been replaced 
in the 10th century by the barbarous Patzinaks, who interfered with the com- 
merce on the Dnieper. Kief was afterwards incorporated with Galicia, and 
then passed with that originally Russian province to Lithuanian Poland for 
many centuries. The ascendency of Kief was replaced after 1169 by that of 
Vladimir on the Kliazma (a branch of the Volga), capital of the principality 
of Souzdal. 

Prom the Grand Princes of Souzdal, or Vladimir, descend the later 
Princes of Moscow. This town has its name from the Moskwa, tributary of the 
Oka, and sub-tributary of the Volga. Meantime the powerful commercial 
republic of Novgorod, ruling over the whole of northern Russia, had developed 
a semi-independence only held in check by its dependence on Souzdal for corn. 



FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Mongol Invasion.— By the colonies established on the upper tributaries 
of the Volga the Russian Slavonians were beginnino- to win their way as colo- 
nists down the valley of this river beyond Nijni Novgorod, when a Tartar 
invasion from Mongolia enslaved Russia for two hundred years. Dschingis 
Khan (p. 168) had extended his power from the territories north of China over 
Turke.^tan and into Europe. The Tartars were wandering herdsmen belonging 
to the same race r.s the Huns of Attila (pp. 142, 145), absolute barbarians, cruel 
in character and repulsive in manners and appearance. 

In 1224 a Tartar army invaded the coiintiy of the Pelovtsi, barbarian successors of the 
Patzinaks in the basins of the Don and lower Dnieper. These begged help of their enemies, 
the Kussians of Galicia. Help was accorded, but the united armies were defeated on the 
Kalka, a small river flowing into the Sea of Azof. Notwithstanding this victory, the Tartars 
turned back to Asia, and were absent thirteen years, engaged in the conquest of China. When 
they returned, in 1237, it was by way of the Volga. They marched to within fifty miles of Nov- 
gorod, destroying everything in their path. They then turned south to sack Kief and ravage 
Galicia. At the call of this province Pope Innocent TV. summoned Christendom to arms. The 



414 



RUSSIA 



Tartars, although victorious, were checked at Liegnitz in Silesia, and at Olmfltz in Moravia hy 
the Bohemians and Moravians. They were turned back by the ap[)roach of a German army 
and the news of their emperor's death in China. 

They continued to hold all E-ussia in tribute and subjection, but 
remained as settled conquerors in the country of the lower Volga, reaching as 
far north as the city of Kasan. They were known as the " Golden Horde," and 
after 1260 were independent of the great Mogul (whose seat was on the Amour 
or in China). The Tartars of the Golden Horde became converts to Moham- 
medanism after 1272. 



Lithuania and Poland.— While Russian power was broken on the east by the Mongols, 
much territory on the west was absorbed by Lithuania, and then joined with that state to 
Poland. The Lithuanians (an Aryan nation) belonged originally in the basin of the Niemen, 
reaching on either side toward the Vistula and the (southern) Dwina. In the 13th century 
they attained political unity. In the 14th century (first Christianized after 1345) they pushed 
south over the intervening Russian territory to the conquest of Galicia, and as far as the 
Dnieper and the Ci imea. In 1386 this Lithuanian state was united with Poland (by marriage) 
uiider the Jagellons. In 1410, by the battlo of Tauuenbcrg, the Teutonic Order was crushed, 

and Lithuanian Poland was 
extended to the Baltic, divid- 
ing the knights in Prussia from 
those in Livonia. With some 
intervals of separation before 
1501, Poland and Lithuania 
were finally united after that 
date, and became an elective 
monarchy after 1569. 







/m 



The Princes of 

Moscow. — Among the 
subject Fiussian princes 
under the Mongol yoke, 
those of Moscow raised 
themselves to power by 
farming: the capitation tax 
levied by the Tartars (to 
which end was made a 
census of the whole peo- 
ple), and by using Tartar assistance in their contests with other Russian princes. 
During the 14th and early 15th centuries was thus gotten together a territory 
reaching from Tver to the neighborhood of Kasan and from the upper valley 
of the Don to the latitude of Lake Oneg-a. 



Church of St. Basil, ar Moscow. 
iBuilt by Ivan the TerrU)le.) 



PRINCES OF MOSCOW. 415 

Ivan III. the Great, 1462-1505, is the sovereign under whom Russia 
escaped the Mongol slavery. He refused the tribute in 1480. He reconquered 
from Lithuanian Poland, Russian territory to the Desna and Soja (eastern 
branch of the Dnieper), and subjected Novgorod with its immense territories. 
Ivan III. married Sophia Palgeologus, niece to the last Byzantine emperor, an 
alliance arranged by Pope Paul 11. From this time Russia has conceived her- 
self the heir of Byzanz (conquered by the Turks in the preceding reign, 1453), 
and hereditary enemy of the Turks. The double-headed eagle crest of modern 
Russia was adopted by Ivan, who added to the Russian eagle that of East- 
Rome. Many Greeks and Italians came into Russia with the Princess Sophia, 
and did much to bring the country nearer to the civilization of Western 
Europe. 

Ivan the Terrible.— Following the reign of Vassili Ivanovitch, 1505-1533, 
comes Ivan IV. the Terrible, 1533-1584. He conquered the Tartar khanates of 
Kasan and Astrachan, giving to Russia (for the first time) the whole course of 
the Volga. The Cossacks of the Don also subjected themselves. With his 
sun and successor, Feodor Ivanovitch 1584-1598, ended the line of Rurik. 

Serfdom. — A Russian noble, brother-in-law of Feodor, put to death the 
heir Dmitri and usurped the throne. To this Boris Godounoff is ascribed the 
measure by which serfdom became general. The binding of the peasants to 
the soil as serfs was intended to protect the small landholders, on whom fell 
the burden of military defence. Serfdom was intended to secure them from 
losing the laborers needed to work their farms, against the competition of 
wealthy landholders able to pay a higher price for labor. 

House of Romanoff — The death of Boris Godounoff was followed by 
disorders and disturbances to which Poland and Sweden contributed, 1605-1613. 
From these troubles Russia was rescued by Michael Romanoff, 1613-1645, the 
grandfather of Peter the Great. 

Under his son Alexis Michailovitch, 1645-1676, through a Cossack rebellion against Poland, 
Kief and the countr}- of the lower Dnieper (known as the Ukraine) were reunited with Eussia. 
The Cossacks of this country north of the Black Sea were nomad marauding soldiers, largely 
composed of refugee serfs. They were engaged in constant border warfare with the Tartars 
of the Crimea, and as the protectors of the Polish or Russian frontiers were tolerated and 
accorded more or less Independence. Although now much diminished in numbers, the Cos- 
sacks still furnish the Russian army with an effective light cavalry. 

Alexis was succeeded by three children— Feodor Alexievitch, 1676-1682; his daughter 
Sophia, Regent, 1682-1689 ; and Peter the Great, 1689-1725. 

Map Study.— Russian Slavonians in the 9th century, p. 154. Poland and Grand Duchy of 
Vladimir, p. 182. Poland and Lithuania, pp. 200, 228— united as an Elective Monarchy, pp. 250, 
256. For localities and rivers, see map of modern Russia. 



416 RUSSIA. 



PETER THE GREAT AND LATER SOVEREIGNS. 

The significance of Peter the Great's reign for Russia will be 
apparent by noting tlie course of her rivers and the position of her territories so 
far enumerated. From Europe in general Russia was separated by the bleak 
plains of Lithuania and Poland. The mouth of the Dnieper was in the hands of 
the Crimean Tartars, who were subjects of the Ottoman Turks. So also were the 
mouth of the Don, and the Sea of Azof. By the Volga and the Caspian Russia 
was connected only with Asia. Ingria and Carelia (since 1617), Livonia and 
Esthonia (since 16G0), belonged to Sweden (p. 405) ; thus Russia was entirely 
cut off from the Baltic. Her only intercourse with Europe was by means of 
Archangel and the White Sea, which, on account of the ice, is open to navi- 
gation only from June to September. 

To civilize Russia it was necessary to open the Baltic. Hence Peter 
the Great's participation in the wars on Charles XH. The victory of Narva 
was entirely barren for Charles. During his absence in Poland, Peter had 
already founded St. Petersburg, 1703, as a Russian capital, replacing Moscow, 
which should keep open communication with Europe. By the Peace of 
Nystad, 1721, securing Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Carelia to Russia, her 
supremacy in the Baltic was assured. (Compare frontier, at pp. 250, 300.) 

In opening up the Black Sea, Peter was less fortunate, but this was of less 
consequence. He took Azof, the key of the Don, in 1796; but lost it after his 
campaign against Turkey on the Pruth, 1711. 

Character of Peter the G-reat.— Peter's greatness was not simply that of a states- 
manlike conqueror. At his accession he hurried to Archangel and learned to be a practical 
sailor, in order to encourage his countrymen in marine enterprise. He served as bombardier in 
the campaign on Azof, and marched on foot as a captain in the triumphal procession on return 
to Moscow, in order to give an example of military subordination and discipline. In 1697 he 
started for Holland, learned the trade of a ship-carpenter, dressed in workman's clothes in 
Saardam, took lessons as a workman in manufacturing paper and ropes, and also studied a 
little medicine and surgery. In England he spent three months in learning shipbuilding, and 
returned home by way of Vienna, where he studied the military art. Revolts in his absence 
against European innovations led him to wage war on the long beards of the Russians, the 
symbol of their conservative prejudices, for to shave the beard was sacrilege. Therefore he 
caused the beards to fall, and with his own hand shaved several of his lords. With the same 
terrible earnestness he even acted as executioner, beheading some of the ringleaders of the 
military mutiny which caused his return. Even his death was characteristic. To rescue a boat 
in distress he threw himself into the icy water of Lake Ladoga, thus contracting a fatal cold. 

The first Emperor of Russia, the founder of St. Petersburg, forgot to build himself a 
palace. " His favorite residence of Peterhof was like the villa of a well-to-do Dutch citizen." 



PETER THE GREAT 



417 

They delight in repeat- 



The people have preserved his memory in their songs and traditions, 
ing " he worked harder than a peasant." 

The life of Peter shows the absolute dependence of Russia on the personal will of the sov- 
ereign, partly a result of Eastern and Tartar influence, but also a result of the Byzantine ideal 
of government. Until his time, the head of the Russian Church had been the Patriarch of 
Moscow. The suppression of the Patriarchate for a Synod, of which the Tzar is really master, 
dates from Peter. 



RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS SINCE THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

Ivan III ^ J). 

Vassili Ivanovitch i> 

Ivan lY - 

Peodor Ivanovitch '• 

Boris Godounoff " 

Interregnum " 

Michael Romanoff " 

Alexis Michailovitch " 

Feodor Alesievitch " 

Sophia as Regent " 

Peter the Great " 

Catharine I " 

Peter II '^ 

Anne Ivanovna »' 

(Ivan VI.) 

Elizabeth Petro^-na " 

Peter III »' 

Catharine II " 

Paul I '. 

Alexander I 

Nicholas I 

Alexander II 

Alexis 



. 1462-1505 
1505-1533 
1533-1584 
1584-1598 
1598-1605 
1605-1613 
1613-1645 
1645-1676 
1676-1682 
1682-1689 
1689-1725 
1725-1727 
1727-1730 
1730-1740 

1741-1762 

1762 

1762-1796 

1796-1801 

1801-1825 

1825-1855 

1855-1881 

1881 



GENEALOGY OP RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS ATTER PETER THE GREAT. 

Ivan, brother of Peter the Great = First wife = Catharine I. 

I i I 



I I 

Catharine=Dnke of Mecklenburg. Anne. 
I (3) 

Anne=Duke of Brunswick. 

Ivan VI. 
(4) 



Alexis Anne=Duke of Holstein. Elizabeth. 

Peter II. Peter HI = Catharine II. 
(2) (6) I (7) 

I 
Paul I. 

I 



Alexander I. 
Alexander 11. 
Alexis. 



Nicholas I. 



418 



RUSSIA 



SUMMARY OF RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS SINCE PETER THE GREAT. 



Catharine I., 1725-1737.— Peter the Great's second wife— a Livonian peasant and 
widow of a Swedish dragoon. She saved the army of Peter on the Pruth in 1711, when at the 
mercy of the Turlcs, by sendius^ her own jewels and all she could collect from the Russian 
officers as a present to an influential official of the Grand Vizier. Notwithstanding her humble 
origin, she was crowned empress in the lifetime of Peter, and ruled successfully after his 
death. 

Peter's son Alexis, by his first wife, was detected in conspiring against his reforms, and 
perhaps in plotting his father's overthrow. He died mysteriously, during the judicial inquiry 
into his crime. The son of this Alexis became— 

Peter III., 1727-1730.— A short reign, showing the increase of Germanizing tendencies 
at the court— no direct male heir. 

Catharine I. and Peter had two daughters -Anne (who married the Duke of Holstein, and 
had a son, afterward Peter III.) and Elizabeth. The Council of State wishing to increase its 
power, and hoping to gain more favor from indirect heirs, set aside these descendants and 
chose a daughter of Peter's brother Ivan. She reigned as— 

Anne Ivanovna, 1730-1740.— Germanic tendencies continue. Polish Succession 
was 1733-1T38. War with Turkey, 1736-17.39 (p. 4-28). 

A second daughter of Ivan, named Catharine, had married the Duke of Mecklenburg. Their 
daughter Anne married the Duke of Brunswick (Genealogy). The son of this marriage had been 

declared the heir of Anne Ivanovna, 
as Ivan VI. A revolution, however, 
placed on the throne the daughter of 
Peter the Great and Catherine I.— 

Elizabeth Petrovna, 1741- 
1762. — An able sovereign. Time of 
the Austrian Succession and Seven 
Years' Wars. Succeeded by — 

Peter III., 1 762, son of Peter's 
daughter Anne and the Duke of Hol- 
stein. His rule was unpopular, and 
was overthrown by a revolution 
which made his wife Sophia of An- 
halt-Zerbst empress. (Peter III. died 
mysteriously.) She reigned, adopt- 
ing a new name, as — 

Catharine II., 1762-1796.--Divisions of Poland (p. 418). Two wars with Turkey. A 
remarkably able sovereign. French tendencies at the court. Followed by her son- 
Paul I., 1796-1801.— A determined enemy of the French Revolution, but an enthusi- 
astic admirer of Bonaparte, with whom he allied himself. His death was a severe blow to 
Napoleon. His son followed— 

Alexander I., 1801-1825.— Prominent in the coahtions against Bonaparte tih Peace 
of Tilsit, 1807 ; then ally of Bonaparte till 1812 ; afterwards most active toward his over- 
throw. 

Nicholas I., 1825-1855.— Brother of the last Tzar. A rigid martinet and disciplinarian, 




Palace of the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. 
{Built by Catharine II.) 



RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS. 419 

but not badly disposed ruler. (He forbade his subjects to violate the Chiuese law against the 
opium traffic, while the English made three wars to force this drug on the Chinese.) He died 
of grief at the result of the Crimean War (p. 298). His son succeeded. 

Alexander II., 1855-1881.— Famous for his liberation of the Eussian serfs in 1861. 
His assassination by the Nihilists placed on the throne his son, the ruling Tzar Alexis. 
Russian " Nihilism •' has some support from the old Russian antagonism to the foreign inno- 
vations introduced by Peter the Great and his successors, but it is essentially only the Russian 
name for the party of anarchy and socialism now becoming rampant all over Europe. 



TERRITORIAL HISTORY OF RUSSIA AFTER PETER THE GREAT. 

During- the 18th century important additions in Europe were made at the expense 
of Turkey and Poland. War with Tuikey from 1768 to 1774 (Catharine H.) closed with the 
Peace of Kaiuardji, giving Russia control of the ports commanding the Don and Sea of Azof, 
and preparing the way for the acquisition, 1783, of the Crimea and the control of the Black 
Sea. (Compare section map, p. 254, with map, p. 298.) 

A second war with Turkey, 1787-1792 (Catharine II.), gave Russia, by the Peace of Jassy, 
the river Dniester as boundary, thus gaining entire control of the Dnieper. (Compare as above.) 

The three partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 (Catharine II.), carried the Russian boun- 
dary on the west to the Niemen and Bug, a branch of the Vistula. Russia only gained at this 
time territories which once belonged to her in the Middle Age, and were afterwards conquered 
by Lithuania, but Poland proper was divided by Austria and Prussia, associates In this 
national crime, by her assistance. (Compare Russian frontier at pp. 256, 292. The Bug is 
marked at p. 300 ; another river of the same name at p. 254.) 

Later Acquisitions.— Finland was conquered from Sweden in 1809 (Alexander I). 
Bessarabia (the country between Dniester and Pruth) and the mouths of the Danube were 
taken from Turkey in 1812 (Alexander I.). The portions of Poland given to Austria and 
Prussia by the second and thml partitions were united by Bonaparte after 1807 (Peace of 
Tilsit) as the Duchy of Warsaw. The Duchy of Warsaw was united to Russia by the Congress 
of Vienna, 1815, but under separate government. (Compare maps, pp. 292,296.) Discontent 
of the Poles at this arrangement led to the revolt of 1830. after which the Duchy of Warsaw 
was united directly with Russia aud very harshly treated, especially since the rising of 1863. 

By the Crimean war, 1853-1856 (Nicholas I.), the Danube mouths were lost, all 
fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea were to be abandoned, and no Russian ships of war 
were to be allowed there. These last conditions of the Treaty of Paris have been disregarded 
by Russia since the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. 

In consequence of the Bulg-arian massacres in 1876, Russia declared war on 
Turkey, and her armies reached the walls of Constantinople. Only some territory in Armenia, 
with the important fortresses of Batoum and Kars in Asia Minor, were ceded Russia. The 
power of Turkey in Europe was, however, almost entirely crippled. 



TERRITORIAL ADVANCE IN ASIA. 

In the reig-n of Ivan IV. (died 1584), Russian explorers had passed the Ural Moun- 
tains into Siberia. Before the end of the 16th century the Russian possessions iu Asia reached 



420 RUSSIA. 

to the Ohi and Irtych, by which trade was opened with Bokhara. By the end of the 17th cen- 
tury the Russian possessions in Asia reached to the Pacific and took in Kamschatka, whither 
Peter the Great sent an exploring expedition. Thus far only the territory drained by rivers 
flowing into the Arctic Ocean was ruled and colonized. During the 18th century no perma- 
nent advance was made in Asia. In the 19th ceutury Russia has conquered the Caucasus, and 
her territory now reaches in Asia Minor beyond the Araxes. On the Pacific she gained in 1858 
the country of the Amour, from China ; and in 1875 the Island of Saghalia, from Japan. Alaska, 
occupied in 182-2, was ceded to the United States in 1875. Acquisitions begun in Northern 
Turkestan after 1844 have resulted in gaining Tashkent^ 1865, Samarcand, 1868, Khiva, 1873, and 
Khocand, 1875. 

The approach of Russian territory to the British frontier in India on the 
side of Afghanistan by the Sir Darja (Oxus), which flows into the Sea of Aral, and forms in its 
lower course the valley and Khanate of Khiva, has much excited the solicitude of Great 
Britain, and has been lately a fertile source of diplomatic controversy and state jealousy. The 
wars lately waged by England in Afghanistan have been intended to anticipate and head off" 
the Russian advance. On the other hand, late Russian expeditions against the Turcomans of 
the Tekke Oasis are intended to establish new points of foothold on the Afghan frontier. The 
Oxus flowed, in ancient times, into the Caspian, but was turned off" into the Sea of Aral by a 
dike constructed by the Turcomans. One object of the Russians is, by cutting the dike, to 
turn the river into its old channel, thus restoring the ancient water communication between 
the heart of Asia and Central Russia by way of the Volga. A canal connecting the Volga and 
the Don would, by way of the Black Sea and Danube, establish Russia as a powerful rival of 
England in the commerce between Europe and the East. 

SUMMARY OF RUSSIAN HISTORY. 

Rurik, 862. 

Power of Kief, till the middle of the 12th century. 

The principality of Souzdal then takes the lead till the Mongol (Tartar) in- 
vasions. 

Mongol power over Russia from 1224 to 1480. The western provinces of 
Russia are conquered by Lithuania and so united with Poland. 

The Grand Princes of Moscow (originally a town of Souzdal) threw off the 
Mongol yoke in 1480, under Ivan III. Territorial increase on the west and on 
the north (Republic of Novgorod). 

Ivan IV. adds the Khanates of Kazan, 1552, and Astrachan, 1554 (basin of 
the lower Volga), and the country of the Don. 

Peter the Great, central date 1700, adds the Baltic provinces and so opens 
Russia to Europe. 

Catharine II. adds Lithuanian Poland and the Crimea, after 1773. 

Alexander I. adds Finland 1809, and the Duchy of Warsaw after 1815. 

The Russian advance in Asia, which had reached Kamschatka about 1700, 
begins to approach the British possessions in India, after 1844, by the rivers 
entering the Sea of Aral. 



QUESTIONS. 421 



SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

How long after the Treaty of Verdun was Rurik's power in Russia established ? (P. 155.) 

Who was German emperor at the death of Jaroslaf the Great ((ilory of Kief), 1054 ? 
(P. 163.) 

How long is this dare before the Norman conquest of England ? (P. 362.) 

What century ends the Crusades ? (P. 191.) 

With what century begins the Mongol rule in Europe ? (P. 169.) 

Of what territories will you deprive modern Russia to understand its size in the time of 
Ivan m. and before his conquests ?~i e., enumerate all acquisitions since Ivan HI. 

How long before the death of Ivan HI. was Charles V. born ? (P. 228.) 

Who was Germanic emperor at the accession of Ivan IV. ? (P. 239.) 

When did the dynasty of Rurik end ? (P. 415.) 

Who was English sovereign then ? (P. 379.) 

Who was Spanish sovereign ? (P. 241.) 

What Russian Tzar made serfdom general ? 

Who emancipated the serfs ? 

Who was Engli-sh king at the accession of Michael Romanoff ? (P. 383.) 

Who was English king at the accession of Peter the Great '? (P. 387.) 

Who was French king at this time ? <T. 281.) 

What general European war was waged in the reign of Peter the Great ? (P. 254.) 

What Prussian king was contemporary with Catherine H. ? (P. 259.) 



ARABS AND TURKS. 



THE MOHAMMEDAN ARABS. 

Until the age of Mohammed, born 569, the Peninsula of Arabia is 
known to history mainly through the spices and incense which it exported 
from the earliest times. Although relatively unknown, the coasts of Arabia 
possessed a high degree of civilization. The Bedouin or wandering Arabs of 
the interior desert were then, as now, barbarian, and are to be distinguished 
then, as now, from the settled and commercial Arabs. 

F'rom contact with Christians and Jews, the Arabs gradually became su- 
perior to their original paganism, and this progress was formulated and made 
general by Mohammed, a self-styled prophet. 

The Mohammedan era is calculated from the year a. d. 622, when the 
prophet was driven for the time being to fly from Mecca (the " Hegira"), but 
also found the faith and constancy of his followers equal to the test thus im- 
posed on them. He died ten years later. 

His cardinal doctrine was the belief in one God, in opposition to the previous Arab 
polytheism ; but submission to the will of God was conceived by him and by his followers in a 
way which led to stagnant indifference to the evil Christians are bidden to combat. Many 
objectionable, and some laudable doctrines and teachings were advanced by this man. As in 
all other human religions, this one also exhibits its good or evil aspect according to the individ- 
ual or national temperament and surroundings. It is known that Mohammed himself was 
subject to epileptic fits, \\hich he conceived to be divinely inspired trances, and it is not neces- 
sary to suppose him a conscious impostor. His teachings, given out in disjointed and frag- 
mentary utterances, and written down on palm leaves and pieces of bone in his lifetime, were 
collected after his death in the Koran. 

The personality and self-confidence of Mohammed inspired his 
nation with a zeal for its new faith which launched it on the most remarkable 
religious war known to history. All nations were to become converts or be put 
to the sword, except Jews and Christians, "the peoples of the Book." These, 
according to the Koran, were to be allowed life and liberty if they paid tribute. 



THE MOHAMMEDAN ARABS. 



423 



Egypt, Syria, and North Africa were wrested from tlie Byzantine Empire about 
the middle of the 7th century a. d. (p. 150, and map, p. 154). Spain was con- 
quered from the Visigoths at the opening of the 8th century. Toward the 
east the Mohammedan conquests reached into India. 

The rulers of the Mohammedan world were called Caliphs. They 
combined spiritual and temporal authority till the middle of the 10th century, 
when they lost their temporal power. 



.'-1^5 




The Musque oi' Umar, Jenisalcm. 
{Originally a Christian Church of the 4th Cent.) 



The first four successors of Moham- 
med were Abu Bekr and Omar, his 
fathers-in-law, and Othman and Ali, 
sons in-law of the prophet. The 
sons of Ali, who were murdered, 
were conceived by some to be the 
next legal successors — hence a sect 
called the Shiites (to which the Per- 
sians have always belonged) denying 
the authority of the later Caliphs. 

The Ommaiads.— The ortho- 
dox Mohammedans or Sunuites, 
whose leading modern representa- 
tives are the Turks, acknowledged 

as next Caliph, in 661, Moawiyah, founder of the line of the Ommaiads ; seat 
at Damascus. 

The Abbasides. — The Ommaiads were overthrown, in 750, by Abbas, 
founder of the Abbaside Caliphs ; seat at Bagdad. An Ommaiad named Abder- 
rhaman, who escaped to Spain, founded there, in 756, an independent power — 
the Caliphate of Cordova (map, p. 154). 

Various independent dynasties rose soon after in various parts of the 
Mohammedan world, paying more or less homage to the Bagdad Caliphs, till 
these were overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 (see contemporary accounts of 
the Mongols in Paissian History). 

The Arab Civilization had reached its highest pitch in the centuries 
after Mohammed. Through the culture and literature of East-Rome, of which 
three provinces — Syria, Egypt and North Africa — were in Arab hands, they 
rivaled that heir of ancient Rome in material civilization and in knowledge. 

The Turks. — In the time of Arabian decay which preceded the Mongol 
desolation of western Asia, the Turkish tribes of the steppes east of the Cas- 
pian, who were converts to Mohammedanism, became first the military de- 
fenders and then the rulers of the Mohammedan countries. It was the oppres- 



424 ARABS AND TURKS. 

sion of the Christians and Christian pilgrims in Syria by the Turks which led 
to the Crusades. These Turks were called from their first leader, the Seljuk 
Turks. Their most important State was a large part of Asia Minor wrested 
from Byzanz. The Crusaders who marched by way of Constantinople had to 
encounter this Sultanate of Iconium (map, p. 182) before reaching Syria. 

SUMMARY OF DATES. 

Mohammedan era a. d. 623 

Four successors of the Prophet to '' 661 

Ommaiad Caliphs (Damascus) to " 750 

Abbaside Caliphs (Bagdad) to " 1258 

QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

How far did the Arabs extend their conquests on the east ? 
How far on the west? 

What Byzantine provinces were inchided in these conquests ? 

What people— converts to Mohammedanism— finally replaced the Arabs as military rulers in 
the eastern countries ? 

What Invasion overthrew the Abbaside Caliphs of Bagdad ? 

What Anglo-Saxon State was ascendant in the time of Mohammed ? 

How long before 622 did Roman missionaries land in Kent ? 

What battle in 732 prevented the Mohammedans from conquering western Europe * (P. 150.) 

What Abbaside Caliph was contemporary of Charlemagne ? (P. 155.) 

What Byzantine province was mainly conquered by the Seljuk Turks ? 

What caused the Crusades ? (P. 183.) 



THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 

The Tribe of Othman.— The Turks now known to us in Turkey are not 
the Seljuk Turks. The Sultan of Iconium took into his service, in the latter 
part of the 18th century, a band of 440 Turkish horsemen, who had wandered 
with their families, first from Turkestan east of the Caspian to the Euphrates 
and then into Asia Minor. They were commanded by Ertoghrul. His son 0th 
man gives the name to the ''Ottoman" Turks of modern times. From the 
Seljuks was borrowed their symbol, the Crescent, 

Ertoghrul and Othman were made lords of a territory in Northwest 
Asia Minor, bordering the remnant of the Byzantine territory. By the death of 
the last Sultan of Iconium, Othman became the most important Turkish chief 
of Asia Minor, after 1307, and reigned till 1336. He was buried at Brussa, con- 



THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 425 

quered from Byzanz in the year of his death. His toQib existed as a noted 
shrine of the Turks till our own time, when it was destroyed by fire. His sabre 
is still used in investing a new Sultan. 

Othman's son Orchan reigned from 1326 to 1359. By 1336 his power 
was firmly established over all Northwest Asia Minor, from which the East- 
Romans were by this time expelled, and in 1356 the Turks set foot in Europe 
on the Thracian Chersonese. They came as allies of a claimant of the Byzan- 
tine throne and remained as allies of the Byzantine Emperor, making constant 
headway by the feuds and divisions in his State. Under Orchan were organized 
the Janissaries, the first standing army known to Europe. They were recruited 
by a forced annual levy of one thousand Christian children, who were then 
educated as Mohammedans. This levy was continued annually till 1673. 

Amurath I. crossed the Hellespont in 1360, one year after his accession, 
took Adrianople in 1361, defeated a Christian army of Servians, Bulgarians and 
crusading allies on the river Maritza, near Adrianople, in 1363, subdued the 
Servians (Slavonians, Greek Church) after 1376 ; crossed the Balkans in 1389, 
and perished in the Turkish victory on the plain of Kossova, in Servia, in 
that year. Bulgaria and Wallachia were made Turkish tributaries as result of 
this victory. Bulgaria was peopled by Slavonian Greek Christians. Like 
Servia, it was at times included under Byzantine rule, at times ind.^i endent— 
and in this latter condition when conquered by the Turks; for the Byzantine 
Empire had begun to fall in pieces before the Turkish conquest. 

Bajazet I. succeeded his father. The flower of French and Hungarian 
chivalry was destroyed by him in the famous battle of Nikopolis on the Danube 
in 1396, and Greece was then made Turkish to the Isthmus of Corinth (Athens, 
Turkish, 1397). 

The battle of Nikopolis seemed to lay Christendom open to the Turks, but 
the Mongol desolators of Asia saved Europe. Bitter enemies of the Turks, the 
Mongols invaded Asia Minor under Timur-lenk (Tamerlane), whose empire 
reached from China to Central Russia. They defeated Bajazet I. and made him 
prisoner in the battle of Angora, 1402. Timur retired from Asia Minor to attack 
China, and died on the march. After a family feud lasting till 1413, the Turks 
once more, under Mahomet I., began to gather power. 

His successor was Amurath II., 1421-1451, who crossed the Bos- 
phorus, in 1440, by Genoese assistance, and defeated the Hungarian hero Hun- 
yades at Varna in 1444. The Hungarian Hunyades and the Albanian Scander- 
beg performed prodigies of valor against the Turks, and to their efforts is 
mainly owing the preservation of Italy and western Europe from invasion. 
The next Sultan was Mahomet II., 1451-1481. He took Constant!- 



426 



ARABS AND TURKS. 



nople in 1453 (p. 136), and proceeded then to overthrow the last remnants of 
Byzantine rale in the Peloponnesus and on the Black Sea. His advance on 
western Europe was checked at Belgrade, in 1456, 
by the heroic eiforts of St. John Capistran, a Fran- 
ciscan monk. 

A feud with the Genoese resulted in the Turk- 
ish conquest of Kaflfa and the Crimea, 1475 (p. 227). 
An attack on Rhodes failed in 1480, but in 
that year the Italian city of Otranto, the key of 
Italy, was captured by the Turks. Mahomet II. 
had threatened to feed his horse on the altar of 
(the old] St. Peter's Church, but his death spared 
Italy from invasion. 

Bajazet II., 1481-ir)12, wasted his forces in feud 
with his own brother and son, 

Selim I., 1512-1530, is renowned for the ad- 
dition of Northern Mesopotamia, of Syria, and 
of Egypt to the Turkish states. These countries 
were conquered from the Mohammedan Mame- 
lukes, a cavalry force recruited from slaves, whose 
chiefs had ruled Egypt since 1264. The Mame- 
lukes had protected the successors of the Caliphs 
of Bagdad ; and the power of the Caliph, as head of the INIohammedan world, 
was now transferred to the Turkish Sultan, 
To him were transferred, also, the sword, 
mantle, and banner of the prophet Moham- 
med, which are still preserved at Constanti- 
nople. The banner is borne before the army 
on occasions of urgent peril. 

Solyman the Great, 1520-1506, raised 
Turkey to its highest power. He conquered, 
from Persia, Bagdad on the Tigris, which has 
ever since been Turkish, and received the allegi- 
ance of the Mohammedan states of North Africa 
— viz., Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli — thus almost 
making the Mediterranean into a Turkish lake, 
Solyman took Rhodes from the Knights of 
St. John in 1522. 

In 1526 he defeated the Hungarians in the battle of Mohacz, and in 1529 




St. John Capistran. 
{From a portrait of his time.') 




Don John of Austri: 



THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 



427 




besieged Vienna. The city was saved, but nearly all Hungary became Turkish 
(till 1699). In the reign of Solyman the Turkish artillery was the best in 
Europe, and his army was 
the most dreaded, but the 
Turkish power declined from 
his time. (See p. 233.) 

Selim II., 1566-1574, 
degraded his reign by a de- 
gree of vicious self-indulgence 
remarkable even in a Turkish 
Sultan. 

Cyprus was taken from 
the Venetians in 1571, but 
this loss was avenged in the 
same year by the famous 
naval victory of Lepanto, on 
the Gulf of Corinth. The 
Christian fleet was organized 
by Pope Pius V.,the Vene- 
tians, and Philip II. of Spain, 
and was commanded by Don , , ^ t 

John of Austria (half brother of Philip IL). The fame of the baUle of Lepanto 
rests on the almost total destruction of the dreaded 
Turkish fleet by an inferior force, and on the confi- 
dence which this victory gave Christendom to continue 
^ts struggle with the infidels. Until this time all Med- 
iterranean coasts were scourged by the Turkish cor- 
sairs, who carried off thousands of Christians to slav- 
ery (ten thousand were liberated from Turkish galleys 

at Lepanto). 

Amurath HI. began the practice of selling ofiicial 
positions, and the Turkish state consequently in his 
time already reached that degradation of official cor 
ruption and cruel oppression which still continues. 

The first half of the 17th century, wMch ^^^^^^^ ^^:'^::^, 

e i^.^ rphivtv Vmr'^' War Thus Europe could not profit by iuiKibU wLjKues 

A^eHc^ .tcl " on oH gl s v,.,er, s„„,e',.at restored order and .,e„.n.,, a,u, in 

t: Var trr^ronAufMa in connection .i.i. a revoU in An.Uian Hnnga-y. An 

Im n/e TurkisL army marched on Vienna, and reached the Kaab, i„„ «as defeated at St. 



Papal Galley. Time of the Battle of Lepanto. 




Shield presented Don 
John of Austria by- 
Pope Pius V. 



428 ARABS AND TURKS. 

Gotthard by Montecuculli, a noted Italian general in Austrian service. This victory demon- 
strated that European discipline and military science were now far above the Turkish. A 
truce with Aus^tria followed, during which Poland and Russia were at war with Turkey. The 
Polish general, Sobieski, won brilliant victories in this war, which prepared him for the glorious 
triumph of 1683 (p. 251). 

The Turks had encamped around Vienna with an army numbering altogether nearly a 
million men. The city was defended by 11,000 soldiers. Sobieski, with 70,000 men, came to 
the rescue, and by brilliant generalship utterly routed the last Turkish army which seriously 
threatened to overpower Christendom. 

Meantime, in 1689, Crete (Venetian since the Fourth Crusade) was won by the Turks, but 
the Venetians conquered the Peloponnesus. A succession of Austrian victories, won by Prince 
Eugene, carried the Austrians to the Danube, and resulted in the Peace of Carlowitz," 1699, by 
which all Hungary was regained (p. 251). 

Austria had made peace in anticipation of the Spanish Succession War (p. 254), but in 
alliance with Venice resumed hostilities after 1715. 

The Peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, gave back the Peloponnesus to Turkey, but carried 
Austria below the Danube. This acquisition was abandoned in 1739 by the Peace of Belgrade, 
ending a three years' war in which Austrian over self-confidence occasioned terrible reverses. 

Meantime Russia was replacing- Austria as the formidable rival of the Turks. 
Betvveen the Turkish Tartars of the Crimea and the Cossacks of Southern Russia was waged a 
constant warfare which the respective authorities sometimes could not check and sometimes 
would not. (In 1570 an army of Crimean Tartars had even sacked Moscow.) When, with the 
accession of Peter the Great, the policy of extending Russia to the Baltic and Black Seas began, 
his first undertaking was an expedition, in 1695, against Azof, the port controlling the naviga- 
tion of the Don. This conquest was abandoned after his disastrous campaign of 1711 on the 
Pruth (p. 416). 

In the war just mentioned as closed by the Peace of Belgrade, Russia had taken active and 
successful share, but was obliged to abandon her conquests by the disasters of Austria. But 
the war between Turkey and Catharine II., opened 1768, resulted in the Russian acquisition of 
the Crimea, thus securing the Don. Important ports were acquired here by the Peace of Kai- 
nardji in 1774, and the entire occupation took place after 1783. A second war under Cath- 
arine n. carried Russia to the Dniester, thus securing the navigation of the important river 
Dnieper. (Peace of Jassy, 1792, p. 418.) 

Times of the French Revolution.— In the complications and rapid changes of alliance 
among European states after the French Revolution and during Bonaparte's time, Turkey 
was entirely controlled by foreign countries, to whose jealousies she owes her later ex- 
istence. 

Beside the losses of territory so far noted, Servia obtained a position of semi- 
independence after 1804, since transformed into entire independence, 1878. Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia were governed by elective Hospodars subject to Russian approval after Catharine II., 
and only paid tribute to Turkey. Russia lost her protectorate over these provinces by the 
Crimean war. They were united as " Roumania" in 1859, and have been since governed by a 
prince of the Prussian House of Hoheuzollern. Since 1878 they are no longer tributary to 
Turkey. The Roumanians claim descent (as their name implies) from Roman soldier colonists 
of the time of Trajan (p. 123). 

The Greeks revolted against Turkey in 1820. Russia, Prance and England united to assist 
them, and the entire Turkish fleet was destroyed at Navarino, west coast Peloponnesus, 1827. 






THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 429 

Greek freedom was secured by the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 (p. 29). Since this time Greece 
is an independent kingdom, recently enlarged by the addition of Thessaly. 

Eg-ypt through the 18th century was but loosely connected with Turkey. Under the rule 
of Mehemet Ali, in the early 19th century, it threatened not only to sever connection with 
Turkey, but to conquer from her Syria and Asia Minor. In 1841 Egypt was made a hereditary 
possession of Mehemet All's family, subject only to tribute and to furnishing a war contingent 
to the Sultan. 

The Crimean "War (p. 298) gave Turkey a new lease of life by depriving Russia for a 
time of naval ascendency in the Black Sea. 

But atrocious massacres in Bulgaria by Turkish Irregulars, 1876, so roused the 
sympathies of other Slavonians and of members of the Greek Cliurch, that first Servia, then 
Russia declared war. The Russian army reached Constantinople, but was forbidden by Great 
Britain to occupy the city, and Russia was too exhausted to stand a new war with a fresh enemy. 

The Treaty of Berlin, 1878, gave Russia only a slight increase of territory in Armenia 
(Kais and Batoum). Turkey in Europe was much diminished. Bulgaria, between the Balkans 
and Danube, was lost entirely. Eastern Roumelia, south of the Balkans, was made a semi- 
independent principality, subject to Turkish tribute and supervision. Bosnia was occupied by 
Austria. According to a secret clause of the Berlin treaty, Cyprus was occupied by Great 
Britain. Servia and Roumania were made independent, as noted on preceding page. 

The little mountaineer State of Monteneg-ro, on the Adriatic, has never been 
conquered by Turkish troops. It is a centre of constant active or smouldering guerilla war 
agamst them. 

The Herzegovina is the mountain district (a portion of Bosnia) above Montenegro, 
nominally subject to Turkey, in which began the revolt which extended to Servia and Rou- 
mania after the BiUgarlan massacres just mentioned (map, p. 300). 



GENERAL ASPECTS OF LATER TURKISH HISTORY. 

An important source of decay in the Turkish State, the sale of offices by the Sultan 
to recruit his private purse, has been mentioned. Another was the insubordination of the 
Janissaries who, after IGOO, dethroned, assassinated, or terrorized over the Sultans at frequent 
intervals. The Janissaries were suppressed by Mahmoud II. in 1826, after a terrible struggle. 

Another cause of decay was the habit, after 1600, of secluding the children of the 
Suitan in the palace instead of giving them posts of trust in the lifetime of the sovereign. 
This measure, intended to prevent family feuds, made the sovereign effeminate or imbecile, 
and threw all active part in the government into the hands of a Grand Vizier. 

The countries held by the Turks in Europe were all inhabited originally by 
Christian populations. There are Armenian Christians in Asia Minor, Maronite Christians in 
Syria, and Kopts in Egypt. Besides the large numbers of Christians remaining in Asiatic 
Turkey they still form in European Turkey four-fifths of the population. These Christians in 
Europe- aside from the Greeks, of whom there are many in Turkey besides those in Greece— are 
nearly all Slavonians, and thus doubly allied, by blood and by religious sympathies, with Russia. 
Hence constant revolts and disturbances, tending to draw this country into war with Turkey. 
On the other hand, Austria discountenances Russian extension on the side of European Turkey, 
as tending to endanger her control of the mouths of the Danube. England objects to Russian 
control of Constantinople, as threatening to cripple her own bold on Asiatic commerce. Ger- 



430 ARABS AND TURKS. 

many does not wish to see Russia more powerful in Enrope, Thus an entirely bankrupt and 
corrupt government continues to exist. Countries which in the time of the Eomans and 
Greeks, of the Egyptians and Assyrians, were covered with prosperous and powerful cities, 
and still of the highest possibilities in the way of civilization, are desolate and depopulated. 

The miserable condition of Turkish, countries, aside from other causes of decay, 
results from a system of tax-farming by which contractors, for a certain sum furnished the 
Sultan, have unlimited power of oppression and extortion over the provinces. Land is uncul- 
tivated and trade idle, because wealth is only a summons for the extortions of the tax-collectors. 

The Turks themselves are a naturally intelligent and well-disposed people, but corrupted by 
European and Eastern vices and mixed with a multitude of renegades who in all centuries have 
been the most depraved and vicious of their officials. Moreover, they are unfitted by religion 
and social habits to assimilate and adopt those features of European civilization which would 
bring them into sympathy with the subject European populations. 

The Turkish langiiag-e is Turanian (p. 3-2), but mixed with Arabic. In literature and 
poetry the Persians have served as their models. 

Tobacco, although we cannot now imagine a Turk without his pipe, was first used after 
1604. Coffee first appeared in Constantinople in the reign of Solyman the Great. 

The character of Turkish g-overnment was doubtless superior in its prime to many 
other eastern despotisms, but it was usual, until 1600, for the new Sultan to put to death his 
brothers in order to forestall their rivalry. One of the Sultans thus killed nineteen brothers. 
The punishment of death was inflicted by many Sultans for the slightest offences. A Sultan 
of the 17th century put to death one hundred thousand persons. A Grand Vizier of the 17th 
century, renowned for his justice, put to death thirty-six thousand persons in five years. It 
is true that these executions were partly called for by the crimes and insubordinate violence of 
the Janissaries, but this does not better our conception of the Turkish State. In the time of 
Bonaparte it was still usual for Turkish soldiers to disperse after, or even before, victory, to 
collect the heads of their slain enemies. 



QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

What nations were engaged in the wars closed by the various treaties mentioned in the 
summary on the next page ? 

What changes of territory were involved in each one of these treaties ? 

What was the leading fealure of French and English histox-y at the time of the battle of 
Nikopolis ? (P. 198.) 

From what time do you date the Byzantine Empire, overthrown in 1453? 

Who married the Byzantine heiress soon after ? (P. 415.) 

Mention the sovereigns of Europe contemporary with Solyman the Great ? (P. 239.) 

What territory was gained by the Turkish victory of Mohacz ? (P. 233.) When lost ? 
(P. 4-28.) By what treaty? 

What conquest roused Christendom to the triumph at Lepauto ? (P. 427.) 

What was the government of Cyprus at this time? (P. 427.) 

When did the Turks lose Cyprus ? (P. 429.) 

Who was king of France when Sobieski defeated the Turks ? 

What gains were made by Russia at the expense of Turkey in the 18th century ? (P. 418.) 

What territories has Turkey lost in the 19th centiuy? (Pp. 428, 429.) 



THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 431 

SUMMARY OF TURKISH HISTORY. 

Othman in Asia Minor after A. D. 1300 -^ 

Turks first landing in Europe ; reign of Orchan " 1356 j 

Amuratli I. took Adrianople " 1361 )■ Mtli Cent 

He died in tlie victory of Korsova " 1389 

Bajazet I. ; victory of Nikopolis " 1396 J 

Bajazet I. ; defeat of Angora " 1402\ 

Maliomet II. took Constantinople " 1453 V 15tli Cent. 

" " the Crimea " 1475 ' 

Selim I. conquered Syria and Egypt " 1517 >, 

Sol>Tnan I. the Great took Rhodes " 1522 | 

" " " victory of Mohacz " 1526 y 16th Cent. 

" " " before Vienna " 1529 

Selim II. conquered Cyprus ; was defeated at Lepauto. . . " 1571 J 

Turkish defeat on the Raab * " 1664 , 

Turks defeated before Vienna by Sobieski " 1683 r 17th Cent. 

Peace of Carlowitz " 4699 

Peace of Passarowitz " l"^!^ 

Peace of Belgrade '' l'^39 j^^g^^ ^^^^_ 

Peace of Kainardji " 47/4 

Peace of Jassy j. < c^ ^ 

Revolt of Servia after " 4804^ 

Independence of Greece after " 4829 

Semi-independence of Egypt after " 4841 1^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ 

Crimean War ends by the Peace of Paris " 1856 

Semi independence of Roumania after " 1859 

Peace of BerHn. (Conditions?) " 1878J 

Map Study.-GeographicaUy the Ottoman Turkish countries were all portions of the 
Byzantine Empire, and Turkish history relates either to Turkish assimilation or to Turkish 
debasement of Byzantine civilization, therefore the sequence of maps for the Byzantme 
Empire should he examined. Its connection and identity with the Koman Empire should 
be also observed. See pp. 116, 140, 154, 136, 182, 200, 228. See maps of European Turkey at 
pp. 296, 298, and 300. At p. 298 are best indicated the dimensions of Bosnia, Servia, W allachia, 
and Moldavia. At p. 300 see Montenegro. Localities are mentioned in the order ef refer- 
ence. Brusa, Adrianople, p. 296; Kossova, in Servia; Nikopolis, p. 298; Angora, in Central 
Asia Minor ; Varna, p. 296 ; Belgrade, p. 256 ; Constantinople, p. 296 ; Kaffa and the Crimea. 
p^296 section map ; Otranto, see Tarent, p. 300 ; Mohacz. p. 228; Lepanto, Gulf of Corinth ; 
Carlowitz, north of and near Belgrade ; Passarowitz, p. 256 ; Jassy, p. 296 ; Navarino, p. 296. 



J}1\ 



V 



